Mcat 2015 Psych/soc

A medical philosophy which claims that illness cannot be understood in terms of biological factors only, and is determined by a variety of influences in the individual's life experience that determine the course of an illness.

A medical philosophy which examines only the biological factors contributing to illness, as opposed to the psychological or sociological factors.

The idea that human actors construct reality, rather than discovering an inherently valid reality. Reality may be divided into brute facts and institutional facts, the latter of which exist only as a function of society's structures and beliefs. Human illness is typically understood via a social constructionist approach in any medical system, and our definitions of diagnoses and disorders are constantly revised.

A method by which human actors create a shared reality (social construct). Individuals develop shared meanings through symbols: a "drug addict" has a variety of socially determined symbolic meanings, from criminal tendencies to mental illness.

A social theory wherein factions of society work together to maintain stability in the face of environmental demands. Functionalism explains the workings of a stable society well, but fails to explain social change.

A social theory wherein factions of society compete and act according to their own interests, their competition for resources and power changing society over time. Conflict theory explains social change well, but fails to explain societies' typical stability.

Material culture includes objects such as technology and art, while symbolic culture exists only in the mind and is based on shared beliefs.

A demographic change that takes place over time, typically due to changing birth and death rates.

Unequal access to resources within a population or geographic area, due to differences in income, employment, or access to factors such as clean water and medical care.

Equal treatment of all people, regardless of race, gender, etc., with respect to relief from environmental and health hazards.

Upward or downward mobility in a class system that takes place within an individual's lifetime.

Upward or downward mobility in a class system that takes place within a lineage over generations.

Non-monetary cultural factors that influence an individual's social mobility.

Social networks or connections that may confer economic or personal benefits contributing to social mobility.

Absolute poverty is a lack of (mostly) essential resources, such as food and clothing. Relative poverty describes social inequality that has profound effects on lifestyle and health, but is not life-threatening.

Learning that involves associations between stimuli and responses, also known as conditioning.

Development of a conditioned response to a conditioned (neutral) stimulus, by association with an unconditioned stimulus that produces an unconditioned response (i.e. Pavlovian conditioning). Classical conditioning involves acquisition of an association, which if not reinforced will be followed by extinction, or possibly spontaneous recovery.

The natural tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

The learned lack of response to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

A type of associative learning in which an individual is more or less likely to carry out a certain behaviour based on the consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour, while punishment decreases it.

The introduction of a reinforcing stimulus in response to a desired behaviour.

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus in response to a desired behaviour.

Introduction of a negative stimulus in response to an unwanted behaviour.

Removal of a positive stimulus in response to an unwanted behaviour.

Primary reinforcers/punishers relate to a physical need, while secondary reinforcers/punishers relate to money, praise, prestige, etc.

In escape conditioning, a subject learns to escape an unpleasant stimulus on its own merit, while in avoidance conditioning, a subject learns to avoid an unpleasant stimulus altogether by employing a response in association with another "warning" stimulus.

When rewards are provided after a specified number of responses (fixed-ratio), an unpredictable number of responses (variable ratio), a specified time interval (fixed-interval), or an unpredictable time interval (variable-interval).

Continuous reinforcement is usually the fastest way to establish a response, but partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction.

Production of a response by reinforcement of successively closer approximations of the desired behaviour.

Learning through observation of the actions of others, rather than through reinforcement. This is based on modelling, the retention of information about another individual's behaviour followed by reenactment. Mirror neurons fire both when a person is observing someone else completing an action, and when the person himself is completing the same action. The observer must have some capacity for experiencing vicarious emotions.

The use of mathematical models to represent complex decision making in which the actions of other group members must be taken into account, and where competitive and cooperative strategies are used together to maximise fitness.

The proposition that impression management takes place in all aspects of human interaction, through manipulation of the performance of a "front stage self" and a "back stage self".

The phenomenon where group members tend to think alike and agree for the sake of harmony within the group. Members may self-censor ideas or opinions that go against group norms, creating the illusion that the group's decisions are unanimous and therefore correct.

When the attitude of the group as a whole toward a particular issue becomes stronger than the attitudes of its individual members.

The tendency of an individual to perform better when he knows he is being watched.

When members of a group decrease the pace or intensity of their own work with the intention of letting other group members work harder. This is similar to the bystander effect.

The anxiety and resulting impaired performance that an individual may experience when confronted with a negative stereotype about his group, or when he feels that his performance may confirm a negative stereotype about his group.

They theory that a universal personality structure (ego, id, and superego) is shaped by life experience, contributing to personal and behavioural differences. This contrasts with trait theory and biological theory of personality, and complements behaviourist theory.

A theory of personality where thought and emotion affect the (observational) learning process, and the experiences and surroundings that people choose. Personal factors, behaviour, and environment all contribute to personality.

A theory of personality where people continually seek experiences that make them better, more fulfilled individuals. Conscious decisions, rather than uncontrollable factors or impulses, are what make people who they are.

A person's belief about the extent to which internal or external factors play a role in shaping his life. This is related to the concepts of self-esteem and self-efficacy.

A sequential series of psychosexual stages in childhood caused by impulses of the id, each of which requires a specific amount of a certain type of stimulus to move on to the next stage. Too much or too little stimulus may result in fixation.

Oral stage: 1st year, nursing and other oral stimulation

Anal stage: 2nd year, toilet training

Phallic stage: years 3-6, gender and sexual identification

Latent stage: years 7-12, social development

Genital stage: adolescence +, mature sexuality

1. Year 1: Trust vs. mistrust

2. Year 2: Autonomy vs. shame/doubt

3. Years 3-6: Initiative vs. guilt

4. Years 7-12: Industry vs. inferiority

5. Adolescence: Identity vs. role confusion

6. Young adulthood: Intimacy vs. isolation

7. Adulthood: Generatively vs. stagnation

8. Maturity: Integrity vs. despair

1. Current developmental level

2. Zone of proximal development

3. Beyond current potential

I. Preconventional morality

1. Punishment

2. Reward

II. Conventional morality

1. Social disapproval

2. Rule-following

III. Postconventional morality

1. Social contract

2. Universal ethics

Research into the causes that people use to explain the behaviours of others, revealing how individuals understand social interactions. Attributions may be dispositional or situational, but are limited by fundamental attribution error. Attributions are strongly influenced by culture.

The tendency to attribute one's success to internal factors while attributing one's failures to external factors.

Psychological disorders characterised by bodily symptoms such as pain, fatigue, and motor problems.

Psychological disorders characterised by the experience of unwarranted fear and anxiety, and associated behaviours. Anxiety disorders manifest physically as excessive SNS activation.

Psychological disorders characterised by disruptions in emotion that influence personal functioning. Mood disorders are separated into depressive and manic categories.

Psychological disorders characterised by the experience of dissociation, or a split between different aspects of the psyche. Dissociation is experienced as a disruption in identity, memory, or consciousness.

Psychological disorders characterised by the permanent development of personality traits that that cause psychological and social dysfunction.

Motor control, decision making, long-term memory

Processing of sensory information (contains the somatosensory cortex)

Processing of visual information

Processing of auditory and olfactory information, emotion, language, and memory formation

1. Sensorimotor (0-2)

2. Preoperational (2-7: language, literal thinking)

3. Concrete operational (7-11: logic, inductive reasoning)

4. Formal operational (11+: abstract thinking, deductive reasoning)

A theory arguing that language is a form of behaviour, and is thus learned via operant conditioning.

A theory arguing that a capacity for language development is innate and does not require conditioning

A theory arguing that the human brain develops so it can receive new language input, and motivation to develop language is primarily social

A tissue located in the frontal lobe involved in speech production

A tissue located in the temporal lobe involved in understanding language

A system of neural pathways connecting the hypothalamus and temporal lobe that is associated with emotion

Part of the brain responsible for producing fear and anger

Part of the brain responsible for conscious regulation of emotion

The theory that emotion is produced when an external stimulus initiates a physiological response, which in turn generates an emotional reaction depending on the brain's interpretation of the physiological cues

The theory that emotion is produced simultaneously with physiological reactions to stimuli, and help determine the best response to the ambiguous physiological cues

The theory that physiological reactions are the first component of an emotional response, and that the brain takes emotion and physiology into account equally to determine the best response

The observation that people are much more likely to agree to a large request if they first agree to a small one

A favourable or unfavourable organisation of beliefs and feelings about people, objects, or situations, that comprises Affective, Behavioural, and Cognitive components

The conflict or inconsistency between internal attitudes and external behaviours. To resolve cognitive dissonance, people change their attitude, change their behaviour, or change their perception of the behaviour

The proposition that behaviour/attitude change depends on the likelihood of an individual generating thoughts and opinions in response to an argument. Peripheral route processing occurs when the individual does not think deeply to resolve the argument, due to unwillingness or heuristics. Central route processing occurs when an individual thinks deeply and elaborates on an argument.

A stress hormone that increases blood glucose to prepare the muscles for fight or flight.

The lowest intensity of a stimulus that can possibly be sensed

The smallest possible difference in a stimulus that is sufficient for the change to be noticed

A law stating that the change in a stimulus required to meet the difference threshold is a specific fraction of the magnitude of the original stimulus (therefore a small change in brightness is more noticeable in a dark room than a bright room).

Criteria that are used to distinguish between figure and background, or ingroup and outgroup objects. Nearness, similarity, common region, closure, continuity, and figure/ground are all Gestalt principles.

The use of multiple neural pathways to convey information about the same stimulus

1: light sleep, alpha waves

2: bursts of brainwave activity, transition

3: some delta waves, transition

4: entirely delta waves

The increase in likelihood that presynaptic input will trigger postsynaptic neurons.

When an item triggers the activation of related memories

A nutritional deficiency that results in a deficit in the ability to recall recent events, while older memories are unaffected