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137 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Hebrew Bible/Old Testament
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Tanakh all together. They have most of the same books, but in different order. The OT is rearranged to foreshadow Christ. There are the Pentateuch, the Historical Books, the Poetic books, and the Prophetic books. It was composed over many years with many authors.
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LXX (Septuagint)
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Used by Catholic and Protestant churches. It is the earliest Greek translation, probably from around the 3rd century BCE. It was used by many Greek speaking people in early Christianity.
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Apocrypha/Deuterocanonical Books
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Catholic and Ethiopic Orthodox churches have added these Hebrew books. They are the hidden texts such as Maccabees, Judith, etc.
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Tel
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Silly ID. Means Hill in Hebrew.
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Merneptah Stele
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Dates Israel to 1210; stone tablet erected by Pharaoh Merneptah signifying victory over Syria and Palestine which testifies to the presence of a group called Israel in Canaan in the 13th century.
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Black Obelisk (+Shalmaneser III, Jehu)
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won the battle of Qarqar in 853 B.C. to put Israel under his control in vassalage. King Jehu of Israel bows to worship Shalmaneser. The Black Obelisk depicts Jehu bowing.
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Pithom & Rameses
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Two cities in the river delta of the Nile whose construction is consistent with the Shasu and most likely occurred within a likely date of the Exodus.
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Shasu
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The first Yahweh worshippers who migrated to preexisting Israel and YHWH became the national God. Nomadic people from Edom.
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Tel Dan Stele
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oldest piece of evidences that mentions the House of David and therefore his dynasty.
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Pharaoh Onqsheshonqy (Shishak)
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The Egyptian king in 1Kings 14:25 that plundered Rehoboam’s Jerusalem.
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Hammurapi
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The first system of laws; there are casuistic and apodictic laws that are mimicked in Exodus. He was the 18th century rule of the Babylonian empire.
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Nebuchadrezzar
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King of the Neo-Babylonian empire in the late 7th and early 6th centuries. He defeated Syria in 605 BC and defeats Judah in 597 for the second stage of vassalage and then demolishes the temple and Jerusalem in 586. End of the Davidic dynasty.
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Tiglat-Pileser III (Pul)
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Judah sides with T-P and Assyria against Isaiah’s wishes when Assyria put Israel in the second stage of vassalage.
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Sennacherib
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Ruler of Neo Assyria who eliminated Israel and made them into an Assyrian province in 722.
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Marduk
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Main player in Babylonian creation epic that battles Tiamat; he defeats her and forms the cosmos from her body in Enuma Elish. Tiamat sounds like the word for primordial soup in Genesis.
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Tiamat
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In Enuma Elish, she is the goddess of salt-waters. She is defeated by Marduk in the Babylonian creation epic. Tiamat sounds very much like the word for the primordial soup described in Genesis.
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Cyrus the Great
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Persian ruler who conquered Babylon in 539 BC and allowed or ordered the Israelites to return to their native lands. Did not impose Zoroastrianism. Nehemiah and Ezra imply he encouraged Israelites to rebuild the temple. Viewed as a liberator.
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Ba'al
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Canaanite god that Israelites kept falling to and worshipping, especially the kings of Israel as opposed to Judah, especially with Jezebel’s marriage to Ahad.
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Anat
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Virgin war-goddess in Ugaritic. Appears in Egypt in the Hyksos period. In the epic of Gilgamesh.
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YHWH
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God’s self-revealed name to Moses in Exodus 3:14. It is typically translated LORD for respected. Uses primarily in the J source until revealed, and then all sources use it. More anthropomorphic and personal; this makes sense.
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El
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Name of the creator god in Ugarit texts; presides over divine council. Just means god. Most high god for Canaanites.
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Elohim
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Name for God in the E source until revelation of Yahweh. He acted as a remote deity; still the Canaanites term for Most High God.
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Asherah
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Semitic mother goddess; Ugaritic goddess. Israelites worshipped her with Asherah poles a lot.
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Ishtar
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Babylonian goddess of war, sex, and love. Wanted to marry Gilgamesh in his epic, but he refuses. She is minimized.
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Mot
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God of death who is subordinate to Ba’al, mimics relation between God and Job.
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Yam
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Means ‘sea’ in Hebrew. God of primordial chaos, enemies with Ba’al.
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Mesha (Moab) Stele
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Signifies the 9th century conquests of Mesha king of Moab over Omri, king of Israel. Bears earliest reference to YHWH.
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Neo-Assyrian Empire
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Begin to show up in Israel in 841 BC, instituted stages of vassalage on both Israel and Judah.
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Neo-Babylonian Empire
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Conquered the neo-Assyrian empire, instituted stages of vassalage on Judah and eventually exiled them to Judah. Conquered by the Persians in 539.
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Persian Empire
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In control from 539-333 BC until Alexander the Great came.
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Greek (Alexander's) Empire
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Empire when Alex wins the Battle of Issus, influence intellectual pursuits a lot, adds a lot of Hellenistic culture.
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Mesopotamia
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Fertile area between the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in modern day Iraq. Very contested area in ancient times.
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722 BCE
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Israel is destroyed by the Assyrians; they next turn to Judah.
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597 BCE
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Judah is placed in the second stage of Vassalage to the neo-Assyrians; all but Jerusalem destroyed and many are deported.
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586 BCE
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Judah and Jerusalem are completely razed, all Judeans are deported to Babylon.
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539 BCE
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Cyrus the Great of Persia conquers Babylon and sends the Israelites back to Judah to rebuild the temple.
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333 BCE
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Alexander the Great took the entire ancient near East
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167 BCE
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Maccabees revolt in which they liberated Judea from Seleucids who outlawed Judaism. The Maccabees tried to decrease the influence of Hellenism in Judaism.
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Megiddo
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the center of Israel, a big crossroads between all the superpowers of the time. Many battles there.
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Omri
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9th Century ruler of Israel who usurped throne. Expanded Israel into Moab, reaches Israel to its height. His dynasty ended when Jehu killed his great-great-grandson.
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Ahaz
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Ruler of Judah in the 8th century. Ahaz sides with Assyria against Isaiah’s wishes and Assyria looks to Judah next for conquest.
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Hezekiah
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King of Judah from 727-698/687. He rebelled and Assyrians put Judah under the second stage of vassalage and deported many people.
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Josiah
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King of Judah from 640-609 BC. He rebelled against the Neo-Assyrian vassalage by withholding taxes and enacts the Deuteronomic religious reform to move the center of worship to just Jerusalem.
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Maccabean Revolt
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Jewish rebel army led a revolt against the Seleucids and liberated Judea in 167 BC. Judea was under the Seleucids who outlawed Judaism and put Zeus in the Holy of Holies.
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Hasmoneans
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The Kingdom that ruled Judea from 142 to 63 BC after the Maccabean revolt. It ended when Rome took over.
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Egypt
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Land where the Israelites were to have migrated to get food during a famine and remain as slaves for 400 years until Moses freed them. There were probably many exoduses. Egypt though did not see many political upheavals and was isolated from invasions. It expanded under the New Kingdom from 1550-1069 into Syria-Palestine. Believed in divine kingship.
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Pharaoh Akhenaten
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Wanted to be viewed a regular guy not the sun god. Considered the world’s first monotheist. Ruled in the Levant at the time of the Exodus. Ruled 1352-1336.
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Armana Letters
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Reveal that the Habiru people lived in the Levant while Egypt was in control of it. Some believe this refers to Hebrews. So not a real exodus because still in Egyptian territory.
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Ugarit
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port city in Syria; Semitic people. Canaanites.
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Documentary Hypothesis
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This is the idea that there is multiple authorship of the Pentateuch. Originally, it was believed there were four sources (J, E, P, D) and then there was H, etc. The many authors worked and different times and the ones who compiled them left the seams and differing accounts. It was a long period of time. By Julius Wellhausen.
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J (Yahwist Source)
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God is portrayed very anthropomorphic, there is a southern, Judah focus and focuses on the threefold promise of God. From around the 10th century. Relationships with soil and humans’ broken relationship and corruption; there are many genealogies.
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E (Elohist Source)
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God is revealed very indirectly and there is a Northern, Ephraim focus, from around the 9th century. Is very fragmentary; complied with J around 700 BC: post-Israel.
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P (Priestly Source)
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Focus is on religious observance of the law, ritual, and dietary laws. God does not appear directly. P was written last and connects many narratives. From around the 6th century.
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D (Deuteronomic Source)
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Connections with E, Horeb instead of Sinai, emphasizes prophesy. Probably written in 622 BC during Josiah’s rule. It changed the location of worship to Jerusalem.
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H (Holiness Code)
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Part of P, in Leviticus 17-26 concerning the profane and the sacred. Written when there was no national identity about being set apart to unify everyone in post exilic Judah.
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Dtr (Deuteronomistic History)
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Joshua, Judges, 1 and 2 Samuel and Kings for form the narrative history of Israel into the Promised Land and the Kings of Israel and Judah.
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Julius Wellhausen
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Created the idea of the Documentary Hypothesis of multiple authorship of the Pentateuch.
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Hermann Gunkel
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Form criticism, says that most of Genesis are older legends just applied to the Israelites.
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Etiology
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An explanation of why things are they way they are, such as why childbirth is difficult. It explains origins through stories.
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Etymology
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The study of the history of words, how they form and how their meaning changes over time.
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Literary Criticism
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There are two methods of approach: the old way is the diachronic way that looks across history to look for seams in text. It looks for changes in vocabulary and style and repetition. The new way is synchronic version that looks for the final version of the text that is sensitive to the meaning of the text and biases.
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Form Criticism
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Identify the form/genre then determine the context of it. Figuring out the form to determine the function of the specific text. Looks for formulas and how they work together as a type. Look for etiological and mythological approaches.
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Motif (Historical Approach)
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Looks for high literary artistry and the care in crafting the work. Looks for repeating images or themes across the text.
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Primeval History
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Genesis 1-11; Adam to Abraham.
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Patriarchs
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Abraham: the model believer who was obedient, Isaac: least developed, subordinate to others in stories, and Jacob: trickster who has many character flaws yet God transforms him; the fathers of the state of Israel.
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Mandrake
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A drug that Leah trades Rachel to sleep with Jacob.
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Loyalty Oath/ Vassal (Suzerainty) Treaty
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Very similar thing used in Deuteronomy. Outlined blessings and curses. Showed that Israelites swore allegiance to Yahweh and not a King. Curses in Deuteronomy 28 are very similar to some of the Assyrian curses.
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Rep. Lynn Westmoreland
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A guy who doesn’t know the 10 commandments yet wants to put them in Mississippi court house.
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Covenant Code
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Exodus 20:22-23:33. Shows the stipulations of the covenant for the Israelites. Shows the laws the Israelites must follow to be set apart and how to govern their society in casuistic law.
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Apodictic Law
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very general laws like the Ten Commandments in Exodus 20. Casuistic laws explain these.
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Casuistic Law
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explains apodictic law and shows case law. Very similar to Hammurabi; Exodus 21-23.
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Holy (Hebrew: Qadosh)
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Holiness means to be set apart; sacred and profane are mutually exclusive. It places order in a complicated world. Israel is a separate nation and it must be separate from all other practices. Priests need to be holier because they are closer to God. Everyone is impure at sometime. God is holy, therefore his people need to be.
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Decalogue
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The Ten Commandments, apodictic law in Exodus 20 that shows the Israelites how they need to relate to God and themselves.
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Penteatuch/Torah
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The first five books of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. Books of the law. Have many genres such as history, etiology, conquest narratives, and God’s covenant.
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Yom Kippur/Day of Atonement
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It purifies the priests, sanctuary, and the people. It is the Sabbath of Sabbaths and there is no work, food or sex. There are two goats are sacrificed: One is the sin offering for Yahweh and the other is for the devil, upon which all the sins of the community are transferred. Described in Leviticus 17.
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Ark of the Covenant
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Container for the text of the covenant. It also acted as a war emblem and it represented God’s presence.
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Shema
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Deuteronomy 6:4-9; commitment to the teaching of Moses and called by Jesus the first and greatest commandment. Frequent Jewish prayer.
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Reed Sea (Hebrew: Yam Suf)
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Bible claims to be the Red Sea but it is really the Reed Sea. People did not know what it meant so they put it as the Red Sea because they could identify it. It is where the Israelites crossed during the Exodus.
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Passover
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Jewish celebration to recognize the day in which God passes over the doors of the Jews because they were marked with lamb’s blood during the last Plague of the Egyptians.
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Anthropomorphic
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The idea that God is very humanlike with human emotions. Very prevalent in the J source, like God walking in the Garden of Eden.
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Levant
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East of the Mediterranean Sea in Modern Day Turkey and Egypt, the area that comprised the Fertile Crescent where the Promised Land was.
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Canaan/Canaanite
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The area that was the Promised Land and its’ inhabitants pre-Israelites. It was promised to Abraham in the covenant. The Israelites were supposed to have demolished all the Canaanites, but there was some intermarriage and cultural assimilations, like Baal worship.
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Cities of Refuge
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Six cites set apart in the Bible to go where someone accused of murder could find asylum until the case was decided or go there if they committed manslaughter.
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Levite
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The priesthood that started with Jacob’s son Levi whose primary responsibility was ritual.
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Azazel (Formerly and Incorrectly Translated as "Scapegoat")
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The goat that was for the devil on Yom Kippur. On the azazel all the sins of the community were cast and it was banished to outside the community to die for all the sins of the people.
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Joseph Callaway/Ai
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Ai was a town that in Joshua the Israelites were supposed to have destroyed. Joseph Callaway as a Southern Baptist Seminary professor who was also an archaeologist and concluded there was no way the Israelites could have destroyed it.
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Kathleen Kenyon/Jericho
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Concluded that Jericho fell long before Joshua’s arrival there.
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Oracles Against the Nations
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Many biblical prophets prophesized against other nations outside of Israel for hurting Israel or for not giving YHWH glory. For instance, Obadiah is criticizing Edom.
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Isaiah
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A book broken into three sections, yet all three are in the same school. First Isaiah is chapters 1-39; written in the time of Isaiah by Isaiah. He was highly educated from Jerusalem. It has oracles against foreign nations and has a mini apocalypse. In the message, Jerusalem is a central part of the plan, yet will be punished. There is an insistence on social justice. Yahweh is responsible for history and punishment. It includes the seige of Jerusalem in 734 and the Syro-Ephraimite War in which Ephraim tried to get Judah to join against Assyria. Isaiah advised King Ahaz of Judah not to join either side, yet he called T-P III of Assyria and eventually Assyria conquered Israel, yet made Judah a vassal state as well. Enemy is Assyria and there is the threat of exile.
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Second (Deutero) Isaiah
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Chapters 40-55; written in the 6th century in the late exilic or early post exilic times. Justice and righteousness and Zion theology present throughout. Enemy is Babylon and Cyrus is the Lord’s anointed. Living in exile, very hopeful about the restoration of the temple and Jerusalem in general. Propaganda of Cyrus the Great.
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Third (Trito) Isaiah
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Chapters 56-66; written in the 5th century or later, involves post-exilic expansion. Justice and righteousness and Zion theology present throughout. Temple is rebuilt, yet more pessimistic and anticipates judgment of wicked in Israel and nations in general.
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Obadiah
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Hostility towards Edom and blaming them for the fall of Jerusalem. Written in Palestine post 586. It talks also about the day of Yahweh.
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Jeremiah
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The prophet himself was from outside Jerusalem and was a Levite priest. He supported Josiah’s reforms and prophesized starting in 627. Two different versions of the text exist with texts in different orders. He opposes Zion theology and says that destruction of the Temple is inevitable and emphasizes religious practices and ethical behavior. He encourages them to just submit to Babylon. He is very concerned with false prophesy.
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Zion Theology
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Because God’s dwelling place, the temple, was in Jerusalem, it and its people will not be destroyed. The temple being destroyed called into question many people’s views of God and how they should worship and where Yahweh resides.
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Amos
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Amos believed the covenant had two aspects: correct worship of YHWH and just treatment of Israelites. If this is broken, Israelites deserve punishment. Amaziah ordered Amos out of Bethel in Israel. Amos was a sheep and cattle herder who had not been trained in prophesy. He had oracles against the nations, prophesies, addresses to different groups of Israel of judgment, but promises to the line of David. During the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel.
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Messenger Formula
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Messenger to declaration to promise. Always says Thus says the LORD.
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Hosea
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Written before the fall of Israel from the Northern Kingdom. The first three chapters talk about marriage and the relationship between God and Israel and chapters 4-14 are oracles on Israel and Assyrian influence.
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Ezekiel
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He was a priest exiled to Babylon in 597. His book took place from 593-573. He was called, had oracles of judgment against Judah and then the nations, but had the restoration of Israel and the temple. The divine presence also came to Babylon with the chosen people; it was no longer in the promises land. This movement was very important. There was much punishment for idolatry and the exiles deserved this punishment. Similar to P source with emphasis on Zadokite priests and similarities with the holiness code.
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Kabod YHWH (see Ezekiel)
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Kabod means heavy, grave, or weighty and is used also to describe the glory of God. Judah has been unfaithful and must be punished and other sinful nations must be punished, yet God will be faithful to restore Israel.
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Theodicy
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Divine justice. Brought up with Job, God let hasatan punish Job though he was blameless. Job was later repaid. Job and Qohelet question mainstream divine justice.
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Cyrus Cylinder
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Babylonian object praising Cyrus for conquering them. It shows the Babylonian king Nabonidus as impious and shows Cyrus pleasing to the Babylonian god Marduk.
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Haggai
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written in the summer of 520 when the temple was not yet rebuilt. Zerubabel and Joshua, the king and priest, were using the money for themselves, yet they were the chosen signet rings. Haggai-Zechariah was one book in Hebrew Bibles. Hopeful message with undercurrent that things aren’t good, but assurance of God’s presence. Believed God was coming back to live in temple.
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Zechariah
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written in the late 6th century, Haggai’s contemporary. There were eight visions that prosperity would be restored; very hopeful for the future. 9-14 were written in the 5th century BC and showed a more uncertain future, although still believed God would return. There is a promise of a universal leader. Haggai-Zechariah was one book in Hebrew Bibles. Message was to rebuild temple.
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Endogamy/Exogamy
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Endogamy is when one marries within ones group and Exogamy is when one marries outside of group. The Hebrew Bible is very much for Endogamy, though texts like Deuteronomy say to be kind to outsiders and texts like Ruth show intermarriage. This says that when others can be brought into the covenant sometimes, though not always as the case with Dinah in Genesis.
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Wisdom
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Consistently rooted in the everyday with the realities of human experience, mundane from the sublime, and the divine and human. Deal with questions like suffering and so similar that it can be universal. It tells you how to live a life pleasing to God. Its goal is character formation and it has an act-consequence correlation. Wisdom is savviness; the ability to get around and how to be civilized. Observation is key, and it focuses on individuals, not nations
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Instruction of Amenemope
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Very similar to Proverbs specifically. It is a Egyptian Wisdom book and Egypt had a lot of influence on Israelite culture during the unified kingdom time. Also resembles Psalms and Deuteronomy. Encourages honesty, personal piety, etc. to find inner peace in a inscrutable world.
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Synonymous Parallelism
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same idea with different words like “Surely God is good to Israel, to those who are pure in heart.” Psalm 73:1
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Antithetic Parallelism
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Use antonyms for contrast like “The Lord watches over the ways of the righteous but the wicked will perish” Psalm 1:6
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Synthetic Parallelism
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Take the same idea and continue to develop it like “Ascribe to the LORD mighty ones, ascribe to the LORD glory and strength” Psalm 29:1.
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Acrostic
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Some poetry is written with the first letter of the Hebrew Bible like Lamentations and Psalm 119
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Individual Lament
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Like Psalm 54, when David was hiding from his enemies and needed divine assistance.
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Hasatan
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The accuser, “the satan” who works for God and does everything to Job.
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Job
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quintessentially good person, same word used to describe a sacrificial lamb. Alternations between Job and fiends. Ancient Near East parallels to Marduk and Babylonian Theodicy. It is a protestation of guiltlessness related to the Egyptian Book of the Dead. No references to Israel’s history, maybe an Edomite in the time of Abraham. Making sense of adverse circumstances. No date or authorship. Three big ideas: 1. Is there such thing as disinterested righteousness? (Would you serve God if there was no afterlife or blessings?) 2. Is there such a thing as innocent suffering? 3. Is God just?
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Qohelet
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means teacher. It was written in the 3-4 century and has Persian words in it and is Hellenistic. It is a collection of thoughts and takes accepted ideas and refutes them. Humans are unable to fathom divine purpose, yet Qohelet is concerned with the meaning of life and divine purpose. The only thing certain is death. Major Problem: Death cancels everything. Major Question: Can one find meaning in life?
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Satire
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Ridicules human faults to bring about improvement in character. Jonah for instance, was meant to be taken as a satire.
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A Modest Proposal
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Jonathan Swift’s satire that we should eat starving children to get off them the streets, though he was trying to draw attention to the fact that children are starving on the streets.
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Homer Stokes
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Oh Brother Where Are Thou
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Levirate Marriage
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When a woman is required to marry her dead husbands brother in order to give her dead husband an heir. This is because Israelites were endogamous and married within their clan.
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Torah-Wisdom
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A lot of wisdom from Proverbs is reflected in the Torah, specifically Deuteronomy. Deuteronomy 30 outlines blessings for those who follow God and curses for those who don’t, similar to the things outlined in Proverbs.
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The Strange Woman
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The woman in Proverbs and other wisdom texts who good men should stay away from, tempts to sin. “Loose woman”
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"Makes the Hands Unclean"
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If the texts should be canonized or not, some rabbis thought Qohelet and Song of Songs “make the hands unclean” and therefore should not be part of the Hebrew Scriptures.
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Hebel (Cf. Qohelet)
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means vapor, meaning absurd. It is translated as vanity often. It implies that one should enjor life because your life isn’t going throughout history
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Sheol
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the underworld in which dead survive in miserable state. All are equal, yet cannot do anything. In Qohelet, all will go here whether or not they did well in life.
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Apocalypse
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revelatory literature with a narrative framework in which God reveals reality to humans. It tends to be pseudepigraphic, giving the credit to more famous people, vaticinium ex eventu, involves primordial events, imminent eschatology (rapture now), periodized history, and judgment (destruction of the wicked). There are symbolic visions, nonsymbolic visions, and other worldly journeys. It is a narrative that helps us make sense of out of chaos. It defers judgment to the end to explain why wicked are blessed in this life and good people are not.
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Vaticinium Ex Eventu
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prophecy after the fact. There are book such as Daniel in which there are some accurate prophecies and inaccurate ones, leading scholars to believe that the book was written after the correct ones happened (prophesy after the fact) and before the incorrect ones did.
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eschaton/eschatology
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rapture; the study of the end of the age. It is very stressed in Daniel.
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Animal Apocalypse (1 Enoch 85-90)
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Not written by Enoch, the great grandfather of Noah, but attributed to him (pseudepigraphic). Animals represent human beings and human beings represent angels. Enoch sees all eternity played out from Adam and Eve to the final Messiah. Undernotes of believing the second temple to be illegitimate.
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Book of Watchers (1 Enoch 1-36)
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An account of the fall of the “Watchers” who fathered the Nephilim in Genesis. Written around 300 BC. Not written by Enoch, the great grandfather of Noah, but attributed to him (pseudepigraphic).
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Antiochus IV Epiphanes
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Ruled the Seleucid Empire from 175-164 BC. After Alexander the Great died, his empire was divided into Ptolemy’s section which was comprised largely of Egypt and the Seleucid section which was Macedonia area. He outlawed Judaism to try to Hellenize the Jews. This lead to the Hasmonean revolt and the rise of the Hasmonean Kingdom.
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The Prayer of Nabonidus
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Was a source for Daniel from the Dead Sea Scrolls. It is very similar to the Madness of Nebuchadnezzar in chapter four, though Nabonidus had a stomach ulcer that an exorcist removed. After this, Nabonidus realized the supremacy of God.
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Jeremiah's 70-year prophecy in the Book of Daniel
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In Jeremiah 25:11-12, he said that the captivity of Judah would last seventy years. Daniel was praying after seventy years and Gabriel intervened and told Daniel that it would really take seven times seventy years. Explanation for why things didn’t happen exactly as Jeremiah had predicted.
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Qumran
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The area in which the Dead Sea Scrolls were found. Very crucial. They are dated to around the time of the Second Temple. It has copies of all books by Esther and it shows the differences in texts that different people had. It shows what books others considered scriptures. There were also many commentaries on books.
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Essenes
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These were the people who lived in the area where the Dead Sea Scrolls were found. They lived from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD and they probably wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls. They abstained from worldly pleasures like marriage and were voluntarily poor.
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Dualism
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This came about in Hellenistic Judaism, spirit and flesh are fundamentally opposing and relates to how the Jews maintained Jewish religion yet became culturally Hellenized to a point. Also the whole good and evil thing. In the end of times, the rapture would reconcile how people lived on earth. The good would have an eternity with God and the wicked would be cursed. This was very evident in Daniel. There is a very stark difference in this age and the age to come.
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Textual Criticism
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Solely examines what the text actually says. It examines unintentional variants within the text like minuses, pluses and changes in order, intentional variants like linguistic changes, modern words, harmonization and interpretations. It also looks at external criteria like the amount of support for it, the age and quality and geographic location of the text. Finally, textual criticism looks at the internal criteria like the difficult of text and the conformity with the author’s language, style, and theology.
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Masoretic Text
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The copy of the Hebrew Scriptures from around 10th century AD. It is when the priests put the vowels in the previously unvoweled Hebrew Scriptures.
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Pesher
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Commentary found in the Dead Sea Scrolls about texts. Some believed they were given divine power to interpret Scriptures. The Essenes wrote these.
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