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237 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What system is blood a part of?
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Cardiovascular system
(heart + blood vessels + blood) |
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What type of tissue is blood?
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fluid connective tissue
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What are the 3 main functions of blood?
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transportation- vit.,hormones
regulation- body temp, pH protection- WBC, blood clotting |
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What is blood composed of?
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fluid & cellular elements
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WHat are the components of blood after centrifugation?
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Plasma
Buffy Coat Hematocrit (PCV) RBC |
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What are the formed elements of blood after centrifugation?
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Buffy Coat
Hematocrit |
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WHat is the buffy coat layer of blood?
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top layer of WBCs & platelets (not whole cells), 1%
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What happens when you see an increase in the buffy coat layer?
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A possible sign of infection
A 5-6% increase is indicative of LEUKEMIA. |
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What is the % of total blood volume occupied by RBCs?
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40%
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What is the hematocrit component of blood?
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PCV (packed cell volume)
15% species dependent |
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Is there a difference bt. male & female PCV levels?
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Yes, males have a higher RBC count b/c testosterone increases RBC production where as estrogen decreases RBC production
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What is the composition of plasma?
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7% proteins
91.5% water 1.5% other solutes (electrolytes,nutrients,gases, regulators,) |
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What are the different proteins found in plasma?
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50% albumins
44% globulins 7% fibrinogen 1% other |
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What is the total blood volume in adults/animals?
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7% for all animals
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What are some characteristics of albumin/
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water attraction & transport of lipid soluable molecules
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Define another term for hematocrit?
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% of total blood volume occupied by RBC
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What volume of blood does the hematocrit occupy?
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40%
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What is the third component of blood?
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Plasma
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Plasma consists of what?
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Proteins
Water Other solutes |
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What percentage of plasma do proteins make up?
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7%
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What is the main function of plasma?
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Maintain oncotic pressure
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Define oncotic pressure.
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Water balance between extra and intra cellular fluid compartments
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Albumin makes up how much of the plasma protein?
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45%
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From where are the plasma proteins derived?
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The liver and WBC
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What can cause an absolute increase in plasma proteins?
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Inflammation
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What can cause a relative increase in plasma proteins?
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Dehydration
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In the case of end-stage liver disease or hemorrhage, what happens to the plasma proteins?
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Decrease
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Where do all formed blood elements come from?
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Pluri-potent stem cell pool
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What 2 cell lines does the pluripotent cell pool differentiate into?
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Myeloid and lymphoid cell lines
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The myeloid cell line includes what cell types?
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RBC, platelets, Monocytes, Granulocytes
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The lymphoid cell line includes what types of cells?
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B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes
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Where does hemopoiesis take place?
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Red bone marrow and lymphoid tissue
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Where does hemopoiesis take place before birth?
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Spleen, liver, thymus, yolk sac, lymph nodes
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What controls hemopoiesis?
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Colony stimulating factors (CSF’s), interleukins, cytokines, thrombopoietin, epo
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On average, what is the total blood volume of adults?
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6-8% of body weight or 60-70 ml/kg body weight
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In which species is the total blood volume higher?
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Dogs, warm blooded horses and birds
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In which species is the total blood volume lower?
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Cat
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How much blood can safely be withdrawn from a healthy patient?
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1% of body weight or 2% if healthy donor
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How do you determine how much fluid can be infused into a patient?
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7% of body weight over 1 hour
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After 1 hour 75% of the infused fluid will be located where?
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Into the tissues, rehydrates ECF and ICF
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What is the infusion rate for less serious cases of dehydration that require fluid maintenance ?
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4-6% of body weight/24 hours (40-60 ml)
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What is another term for Red Blood Cells?
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Erythrocytes
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What are the 2 main functions of circulating erythrocytes?
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Exchange of gases O2 and CO2
Regulation of blood pH |
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Define erythron.
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All erthyroid cells = precursors and RBC’s
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Describe the normal shape of an RBC
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Biconcave, rounded
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Describe the shape of RBC’s in camelids
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Oval disc
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The large surface area on RBCs is used for what function?
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Gas exchange
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What is the average RBC size in man and in animals?
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Man = 7 microns, animals =4-8 microns
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What is the concentration of RBCs in man and animals?
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Man = 5 million/microliter of blood
Animals=4-8 million/micoliter of blood |
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What is the hemoglobin saturation of RBc’s?
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33%
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What is not present in mature RBCs?
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No nucleus, mitochondria, golgi or ER
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A RBC gains energy thru what process?
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Anaerobic glycolysis
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What are RBCs dependent on ?
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Glucose
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What are some of the difference in RBCs of reptiles, amphibians and birds?
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Nucleated, larger, oval, almond shaped
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Which species has the largest RBCs?
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Salamander
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What percentage of CO2 is transported by the RBCs?
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23% of total CO2
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RBCs transport CO2 in what form?
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Bicarbonate
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How far does a RBC travel each day?
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2.5 km (1.5 miles)
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What causes the RBC membranes to break down?
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Squeezing through capillaries ½ their size.
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Damaged parts of a RBC exposes what?
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New antigens (cannot be repaired)
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What is the life span of a RBC?
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4-5 months-120 days
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How long is the RBC lifespan in cats and pigs?
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2 months
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Everyday, approximately what percentage of RBCs die and need to be replaced?
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1%
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What controls erythropoiesis?
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Tissue oxygenation
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Describe the course for the stimulation of erthropoiesis
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Withdrawl of RBC >hypoxia>renal tubular receptors>EPO released>bone marrow>stimulation of erythropoiesis>release of new RBCs
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What are the steps from myeloid stem cell to RBC?
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CFU/ery > rubriblast > reticulocyte
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From rubriblast to reticulocyte takes how much time?
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5 days
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Another name for an immature RBC is _________.
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Reticulocyte
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What is involved in cell differentiation in the production of RBCs?
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Cells become smaller
Hb content increases Nucleus condenses Division stop when Hb level is reached which = 33%. Extrusion of nucleus = reticulocyte |
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What is the normal % of reticulocytes in blood?
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1-2%
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What is the difference of reticulocytes between dogs and horses?
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Horses don’t release reticulocyte…only mature RBCs (ruminants also)
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Erythropoiesis is dependent on what vitamins and minerals?
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Iron, folic acid, vitamin B (2,6,12)
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What organ removes weakened or damaged RBCs?
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The spleen
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What other method is used for removal of RBCs?
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Mononuclear-phagocytic system
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Where do these phagocytic cells come from?
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Spleen, liver, bone marrow
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What happens to the globin from removed RBCs?
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It returns to the circulation for protein synthesis elsewhere
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Heme is converted into what during protein synthesis?
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Bilirubin
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How is bilirubin excreted?
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In the bile juices
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Iron is recycled after its removal from heme. In what form is iron transported at this point?
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Bound with a plasma protein to form Tranferrin
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To what does transferring strongly bind?
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Erythroblastic receptors
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Fe is released into the euroblast cells for what purpose?
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Hb synthesis
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In what other form can Fe be stored in other tissue?
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Ferritin
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If the ferritin stores are full, what form is the excess iron stored?
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Hemosiderin
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Too much hemosiderin can lead to what?
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toxic cell damage
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What is the term for the result of strongly stimulated erythropoiesis?
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Reticulocytosis
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How long does it take a cell to differentiate from a CFU-ery to a reticulocyte?
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4-5 days
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How long does it take after an injury to see reticulocytes in the blood?
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3-5 days, peak production at 7-14 days after
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In some severe cases of reticulocytosis, what other cells might you see?
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Metarubricytes, rubicytes, rubriblasts
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What appearance would cells with reticulocytosis have?
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Nucleated RBC
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Do reticulocytes contribute to the overall oxygen carrying capacity of blood?
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Yes
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How many days after injury will a horse or ruminant show reticulocytosis?
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They won’t, only mature RBCs are released
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Name the 3 lab values used for the evaluation of the eythrons.
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Hematocrit, RBC count, Hemoglobin content in blood
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Why are RBC parameters important?
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They help diagnose/describe anemias.
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Define hematocrit
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% of whole blood after centrifugation
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What is another term for hematocrit?
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PCV packed cell volume
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How is the RBC count given?
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Millions RBC/microliter of blood performed
Trillion / L blood |
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How is hemoglobin content in blood determined?
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Colormetrically
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What units are used to express the hemoglobin content in blood?
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g/ L blood
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A blood smear can be used to detect what?
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The presence of reticulocytes
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What 2 RBC indices are calculated from the lab values?
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MCV= mean corpuscular volume
MCHC= mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration |
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MCV describes the volume of what?
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One corpuscle or RBC
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What are the 3 results that can be given for an MCV value?
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Normocytic, microcytic, macrocytic
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What can cause microcytic cells?
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Fe deficiency
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Why are microcytic cells smaller?
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They keep dividing and never reach their Hb saturation
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What type of cell would be macrocytic?
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Immature RBCs that have not expelled all organelles
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What are the terms for the results of MCHC?
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Normochromic, hypochromic, hyperchromic
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What causes a hyperchromic MCHC?
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Artifact caused by hemolytic sample
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What causes a hypochromic MCHC?
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Iron deficiency, immature RBC
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Define anemia.
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Deficiency in oxygen carrying capacity
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Anemia could be caused by what?
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Low RBC count
Low Hb count Malfunctional RBCs (PCV is often low but could be normal) |
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By what three parameters is anemia classified?
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According to cause, bone marrow response and RBC parameters (indices).
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Name the 3 classifications of causes of anemia.
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Hemorrhagic, hemolytic, dishemopoietic
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Name the classification of anemia according to bone marrow response.
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Regenerative and non-regenerative
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What are the classifications based on RBC parameters?
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RBC size: normo, micro, macrocytic
Hb content: normo, hypochromic |
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What causes hemorrhagic anemia?
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Acute blood loss
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How soon after blood loss is fluid replaced?
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1-3 days
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How long before plasma proteins are restored?
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1 week
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What is the normal concentration of Hb within RBC's?
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33%
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How long until signs of regeneration of RBCs appear?
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3-5 days
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How long does it take to see full regeneration of RBC?
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1-2 weeks
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How would you describe a hemorrhagic anemia?
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Hemorrhagic, macrocytic-hypochromic, regenerative anemia
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What can cause a hemolytic anemia?
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Blood parasites, toxins, immune mediated defects(sickle cell)
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Are dyshemopoietic anemias regenerative or non-generative?
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Non-regnerative
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What three conditions can lead to dyshemopoietic anemia?
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Nutritional deficiencies, chronic (inflammatory disorders), chronic renal disease
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115. What usually causes a nutritional deficiency anemia?
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Lack of iron, cells can't produce sufficient Hb & keep dividing.
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As a result of low iron, what happens to the RBCs?
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New cells cannot produce sufficient Hb and continue to divide
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How would you describe the RBC’s in a nutritional anemia?
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Microcytic-hypochromic
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What effect does Tumor Necrosing Factor have on eythropoeisis?
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Suppresses it
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WHat does dyshemopoietic mean?
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reduced or defective erythropoiesis,
usually nutritional. |
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In an ACD or AID, how would you classify the anemia?
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Dyshemopoetic, normocytic-normochromic, non-regenerative
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Chronic renal disease leads to a lack of EPO. How would you classify the RBCs? & why?
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Normocytic, normochromic
RBCs are being produced, and look normal, just not enough of them |
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What could cause a hemorrhagic or hemolytic anemia to become non-generative?
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If they are from chronic disorders (ie GI ulcers, parasites). Exhaustion of iron stores after long stimulation.
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What is the termed given to an increase in RBC numbers?
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Polycythemia
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Primary Polycythemia is also known as what?
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Polycythemia vera (P. Vera)
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P. vera is caused by what?
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Uncontrolled feedback on RBC production
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PCV values in P. vera can rise by how much?
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60-70% increase
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Which dog breeds have naturally high PCV?
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Sight hounds
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The more common, or secondary polycythemia is caused by what?
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Physical response due to O2 deficiency due to high altitude, cardiac failure, lung disease
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How much does Hct rise in secondary polycythemia?
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A few %
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What causes the very common condition of relative polycythemia?
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Dehydration, blood components become more concentrated, not a true polycythemia
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In a case of relative polycythemia, how will the Hct appear?
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Elevated, as well as the plasma proteins
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What can be the cause of a relative polycythemia in a horse, cat or sight hound?
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Splenic contraction due to excitement and exercise.
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In this case of polycythemia what would the Hct and plasma protein values look like?
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Hct elevated, proteins normal
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What 2 types of blood antigens are known?
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Those which have natural antibodies, those that do not have natural antibodies
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How does an animal acquire natural antibodies?
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Acquired via food
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What blood type system do cats have?
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A-B
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Animals that don’t have natural antibodies can develop them from what?
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Blood transfusion
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What causes a reaction during a blood transfusion if the recipient has antibodies?
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Recipients antibodies will react with donor RBC
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What can happen during a reaction from a blood transfusion?
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Intra-vascular RBC agglutination,
Phagocytosis and rupture of attacked cells Blockage of capillaries (shock) Precipitation of excess Hb leading to renal blockage then acute renal failure |
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What will happen if this same animal is transfused a second time?
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Full blown immune response
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If the recipient of a blood transfusion has no natural antibodies, what will happen with the transfusion (in terms of antibodies)
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The recipient will slowly develop antibodies
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What is the name of the process of determining the RBC antigens present in an individual?
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Blood typing
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In the dog, which blood groups are strongly antigenic?
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DEA 1.1,1.2 and 7
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What quick test can be done to determine if a transfusion reaction could occur?
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Cross matching
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In cross matching, what is tested to check for a major reaction?
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Expose the donor RBCs to the recipients plasma, observe for agglutination
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How would you check for a minor reaction?
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Expose the recipients RBCs to the donor’s plasma, observe for agglutination
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What is the definition of hemostasis?
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Sequence of responses that stop bleeding
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Name the 5 steps involved in hemostatis
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Vascular spasm
Platelet plug formation Blood clot formation = coagulation = secondary hemostatis Healing Clot removal = fibrinolysis |
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What is another term used for platelets?
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Thrombocytes
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What is the shape and size of a platelet?
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Round to oval, 2-4 microns (4-8 nucleated in birds and reptiles)
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What is the normal concentration of platelets?
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150 – 300, 000 / microliter
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What is the half life of platelets?
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10 days
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From where are platelets derived?
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Bone marrow megacaryocytes
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What controls the production of platelets?
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Hepatic thombopoietin
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What are platelets composed of?
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Contractile proteins (actin, myosin, thrombosthenin)
ADP,ATP Prostoglandins, serotonin, clotting factors, endothelial growth factors Calcium |
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What role do platelets play in the hemostasis process?
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Step 1- release of chemicals that cause vasospasm
Step 2- formation of platelet plug Step 3-release of factors that promote coagulation Step 4- the healing processes |
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When does vasospasm occur in the hemostasis process?
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Immediately upon injury to a vessel
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What is the purpose of vasospasm?
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Reduce blood flow/blood loss
Facilitate subsequent steps of hemostasis |
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What causes the vasospasm?
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Release of endothelin from damaged cells
Later release of thromboxane A2 and serotonin from platelets Myogenic contraction of damaged smooth muscle cells |
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How long does vasospasm last?
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Minutes to hours
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What 3 steps are in the platelet plug formation?
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Platelet adhesion
Release reaction Platelet aggregation |
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Damaged endothelial cells release what during the platelet adhesion stage?
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Von Willebrand Factor (vWF)
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What do endothelial and plasma vWF do?
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Bind to damaged cells and exposed collagen fibers, express receptor sites for platelets
Altered vWF starts to bind platelets |
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What is the timing of adhesion of platelets via vWF?
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Within seconds of injury
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Adhesion activates the platelets causing them to do what?
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Contract and send out pseudopodia to interact with other platelets
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During this release reaction stage, the platelets release serotonin and thromboaxne A2 which has what effect?
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Promotes vasospasm
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What do the platelets release that attracts more platelets?
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ADP and thromboxane A2
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What is the name of the glue-like substance that promotes adhesion?
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Fibronectin
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What is another term for platelets factors that are released in the release reaction stage of platelet plug formation?
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Clotting factors (III, V and VIII)
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What receptor sites are exposed during the release rxn. stage during platelet plug formation & why?
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Receptor sites for fibrinogen and prothrombin, esential for clotting.
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What happens during the aggregation phase of the platelet plug formation?
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More and more platelets are attracted and adhere to the injured site and each other
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What is the timing for loose plug formation at the injury site?
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1-2 minutes
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A lack of platelets or vWF can lead to what?
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Bleeding disorders
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With larger injuries, what occurs at the same time as the platelet plug formation?
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The clotting cascade, to stabilize the platelet plug with fibrin strands.
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What is the term given for secondary hemostatis?
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Clot formation/ coagulation
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In general, what happens during the clot formation stage?
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A cascade of chemical reactions leading to the formation of strong fibrin threads within the platelet plug, which gives it more strength
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How soon after injury does secondary hemostasis begin?
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Should be completed within 3-6 minutes after injury
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What is the term given for secondary hemostatis?
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Clot formation/ coagulation
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In general, what happens during the clot formation stage?
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A cascade of chemical reactions leading to the formation of strong fibrin threads within the platelet plug, which gives it more strength.
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How soon after injury does secondary hemostasis begin?
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Should be completed within 3-6 minutes after injury
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How many stages are in the formation of a clot?
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3
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In general, what happens during stage 1?
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Formation of a Prothrombin Activator Complex
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What pathways can be taken for the formation of Prothrombin activator complex?
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2, extrinsic and intrinsic
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Generally what happens during the 3rd stage?
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Conversion of soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin
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When is the extrinsic pathway for clot formation used?
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Where there is an injury to blood vessels and tissues expressing thromboplastin (tissue-based)
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During the extrinsic stage, what activates the enzymatic cascade?
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Thromboplastin (tissue factor)
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This enzymatic cascade during the extrinsic pathway results in what?
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Prothrombin activator complex
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How long does it take for the extrinsic pathway to work?
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15-30 seconds
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Give an example of a condition that would use the intrinsic pathway for clot formation.
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Inflammatory reaction, activated platelets, contact with glass surface
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In the intrinsic pathway, a change in the surface charge of endothelial membranes activates what?
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Factor XII (plasma-based)
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What happens when the changed surfaces bind to factor XII?
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Activates an enzymatic cascade (kallekrein, factors XI, IX, VIII, X, Ca
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The release of these enzymes leads to what?
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Prothrombin activator complex
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Both the extrinsic and intrinsic pathway require what?
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Plasma factors, platelet factors and calcium
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How long does it take for the intrinsic system to work?
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1-6 minutes
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Of the 2 pathways? Which is faster and more powerful?
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The extrinsic pathway
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In the common pathway, what is the purpose of the prothrombin activator complex?
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Converts the proenzyme prothrombin into the active enzyme thrombin
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The synthesis of prothrombin is dependent on what substance?
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Vitamin K
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Where does prothrombin attach during synthesis?
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To activated platelets
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What effect does throbim have?
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Positive feedback effect in the extrinsic and intrinsic system and platelet aggregation and fibrin formation
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What effect does thrombin have on fibrinogen?
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Hydrolyses it into fibrin monomers
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What happens to the fibrin after being produced from thrombin/fibrogin ?
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Polymerize into long fibrin strands and are cross-linked into strong fibrin meshwork within and around the platelet plug making a stable clot
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How long after injury does the bleeding stop?
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3-6 minutes
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Describe clot retraction
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With in the next 30 minutes the platelets contract more and pull fibrin threads together, the clot tightens and pulls the edges of the injured blood vessel together
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What is the term given to the fluid that remains after hemostasis has occurred?
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Serum
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What is serum composed of?
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Plasma minus the clotting factors
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In the healing stage, the fibrin network serves a scaffolding for what to attach?
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Invading fibroblasts
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What stimulates the fibroblasts?
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Platelet derived endothelial growth factor
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Removal of a clot is referred to as ___________.
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Fibrinolysis
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To remove a clot, injured tissue and endothelium slowly release what?
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Tissue-Plasminogen Activator (tPA)
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What stimulates the fibroblasts?
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Platelet derived endothelial growth factor
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Removal of a clot is referred to as ___________.
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Fibrinolysis
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To remove a clot, injured tissue and endothelium slowly release what?
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Tissue-Plasminogen Activator (tPA)
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How soon after a clot is formed does Tissue-Plasminogen Activator (tPA) get released?
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1-2 days after clot formation
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What is the function of tPA?
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Activates the hepatic plasma factor Plasminogen to Plasmin, a proteolytic enzyme
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What is the function of plasmin?
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Hydrolyses the fibrin fibers and clotting factors
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How are the products produced from plasmin removed?
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macrophages
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What happens to a blood vessel once a clot is removed?
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It opens
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What is the purpose of hemostatic control mechanisms?
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Preventing unnecessary plug/clot formation and to limit excessive clot growth in vivo
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How is platelet adehesion and activation prevented?
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By the smoothness of the endothelial cells
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What do endothelial cells and WBC secrete to inhibit platelet adhesion?
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Prostacyclin and nitric oxide
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To prevent an excess clot formation, what binds with fibrin?
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Thrombin thru positive feedback
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What substance deactivates thrombin and other clotting factors?
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Anti-Thrombin III (alpha globulin)
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What chemical combines with anti-thrombin III and augments its effectiveness?
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Heparin
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Where does heparin come from?
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Mast cells and basophils
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Name some of the in vitro anticoagulates
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Calcium binding agents (citrate, oxalate, EDTA), heparin
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Name some of the in vivo anticoagulates
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Heparin, vitamin K antagonist, NSAIDS
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Why is vitamin K antagonist an anticoagulant?
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Without vitamin K, prothrombin synthesis cannot occur, therefor thrombin is not synthesized, the positive feedback mechanism that controls the system would be missing.
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