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48 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Reasoning
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Weighing evidence to find a conclusion.
One way to be a critical thinker^^... Quantity & Quality of the evidence should be included in your reasoning for what you believe. |
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Rationalization
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Starting with belief/opinion/conclusion
then, selectively searching for evidence (selective attention) |
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First principle of critical thinking
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To be open minded?
-skeptical |
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Importance of a stable yet flexible memory system
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??
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Advantages of a constructive memory system
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-An apparent memory: (a memory that didn't actually happen, unconsciously constructed to fill a gap.)
-Prevents holes and gaps in our memory -Provides fluency in our memory |
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Short-term memory
VS. Long-term memory |
Short-Term:
-Processes meaning, links information -Can hold 7-9 units for about 5-15 secs w/o rehearsal -Consciousness Long-Term: -Unlimited storage of info -Permanent |
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Necessary truth
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True under all circumstances
? |
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Cognitive Schema
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Mental network that organizes information based on already existing beliefs/ experiences
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New knowledge and memory
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Sensory input--
sensory memory-- through attention: short-term(working memory)--though encoding/change: long-term memory: either retrieval or forgetting |
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Problems with relying on common sense
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??
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Fallacy of appeal to ignorance
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Using the Lack of evidence for proof
-**Cant use the lack of evidence as evidence "no evidence given, so we can believe otherwise" |
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Cognitive opinion
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Based on consideration of evidence
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Affective opinion
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Based on emotion (moods, feelings, and values)
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Reasonable doubt
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Credible evidence to the contrary
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Four types of evidence used to evaluate a claim
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Anecdotal evidence: (non-scientific, not always true or right, based on personal accounts rather than facts/research)
Testimonial evidence: -look for credibility: (expert) credentials, education, experience Experimental evidence: (through conducting experiments) -look for bias!: sample size, population, selection of sample, representative Statistical evidence: |
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Encoding &
Decoding |
Encoding: Taking info from the working memory and organizing it into the long-term memory
Decoding: retrieving info from the long-term and bringing it to consciousness (short-term memory) |
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Two characteristics of a critical thinker
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1. Openminded
2. Skeptical |
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memory
& consciousness |
Working memory(short-term): where you can be conscious of information
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Reasons for egocentrism & ethnocentrism
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egocentrism: Having little or no regard for interests of others. Self-centered, self-love
ethnocentrism: attitude that ones own group is superior |
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Perceptual filters
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How we perceive the world.
-we filter the "objective world" through: Age, environment, location, etc. -Who we are, "subjective beliefs" |
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Selective attention & critical thinking
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Intentionally focuses on one thing.
-usually the most relevant task on hand, -Shapes memory because all other stimuli that happens while selectively paying attention, are forgotten: as a result of never being fully processed |
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Subjective relativism
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Whatever is true for you
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Declarative Memory Vs Non-declarative
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Declarative Memory: (explicit)
- memories which can be consciously recalled - such as facts and knowledge Non-declarative: (procedural) -unconscious memories such as skills (e.g. learning to ride a bicycle). |
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Types of Info we are most likely to remember
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1. Emotional events (survival value)
2. Meaningfulness 3. Interesting events -First and Last thing -Most relevant -Most recent |
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Difference between opinion & reasoned judgement
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Reasoned judgement is based on evidence!
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Self-fulfilling prophecy
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A Self Fulfilling Prophecy is a prediction that causes itself to come true
-due to the simple fact that the prediction was made. This happens because our beliefs influence our actions. |
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Law of Large numbers
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For sample sizes: "the larger the number the more accurate"
-More it represents |
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Theory Vs Hypothesis
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Theory: An explanation
-must be well substantiated(based on proven hypothesis) -must be consistent: internal:can't contradict itself, external: must account for all the evidence Hypothesis: A testable question -educated guess -relationship between two variables: if, then statement |
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4 things that scientific inquiry permits
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1. make predictions
2. describe 3. explain 4. control |
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4 criteria for rating the adequacy of a hypothesis
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-Testable?
-Predictable? -Conservatism? (Consistent with our scientific knowledge) -Simplicity? |
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Fallacy of appeal to false authority
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believing a person based on authority
-even if they're not an expert on the matter |
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4 steps of evaluation a supernatural claim
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1.State the claim/problem
-conceptual definition(define) & operational definition(how to measure) 2.Examine evidence: -Quality and quantity of credible, empirical, and what type?(anecdote, testimony, experiment, statistic) 3. Alternate explanations 4. Measure each/all hypothesizes |
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Principle of parsimony
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One should always choose the simplest explanation of a phenomenon, the one that requires the fewest leaps of logic
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Principle of conservatism
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-should be fair and reasonable.
-make evaluations and estimates, to deliver opinions, and to select procedures. They should do so in a way that neither overstates nor understates the affairs of the business or the results of operation. |
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Purpose of correlation research
Limits of correlation research |
To see how two variables are correlated with each other
*Can only prove correlations, not causations -other factors can throw off correlations |
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Positive and Negative correlation
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Positive: Correlations in the same direction: as one goes up the other goes up too
Negative: as one goes up the other goes down |
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Difference between scientific method and other forms of knowledge
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Scientific Method:
1. State problem 2.Hypothesis 3.Design experiment 4.Predict 5.Test experiment It follows this method no matter what |
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Post Hoc fallacy
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-After the fact
-Event C happened immediately prior to event E. Therefore, C caused E |
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Causal oversimplification
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-occurs when it is assumed that there is a single, simple cause of an outcome when in reality it may have been caused by a number of only jointly sufficient causes.
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Randomization
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choosing a group at random
-to eliminate bias -to represent the population |
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External validity
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-the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people
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Conceptual definition
Operational definition |
Conceptual: -Dictionary definition, Variable
-anxiety is defined as... Operational: Measure -anxiety is measured by... |
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Control group
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-a group separated from the rest of the experiment where the independent variable being tested cannot influence the results.
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Dangers of relying on personal experience
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-memory can fool us,
-confirmation bias |
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halo effect
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Grants status to people we like
-"everything under his/her halo is likable" |
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Purpose of an experiment
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to find an answer
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Scientific attitude toward knowledge
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-relys on evidence
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Placebo effect
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-a fake medicine/treatment
-people will claim they are getting better even though its just a placebo |