Psych 261 Exam 1 Part 1

1.Broca's area:temporal lobe area
2.Wernicke's area
3.Motor cortex
4.Angular Gyrus
5.Primary auditory cortex

right side:gets visual info.left:control language.
ex.flash word 'heart'.ss say they saw art(on right side&processed on left)&point w left hand to 'he'(processed on right).crossover:left side control/get sensation from right&vise versa.

exception:olfactory system.left nostril (smell) goes to left hemisphere&vise versa

bogen:cut corpous callosum commissure(right& left cerebral hemisphere path)&fix seizure (electrical storm in brain)in 16ppl.made 2 structures independent (dont share info).no daily behavior,temper&intellect change.
odd behavior:alien hand:someone else control it.button&unbutton shirt

ignore left side of space(body,sound,obj).bad work memory b/c cant pay attention/represent it.can perceive.for different time amount
draw ½shape.use left hand if cross arm.stroke:damage right parietal&temporal brain
region.neuron die wout nutrient.bisiach,luzzatti:see obj in north/so. piazza del duomo

Broca:(1824-1880CE):speak slow/no speech.issue w speech production.French.did autopsy after Leborgne/ tan died.stroke damaged brain connected to temporal lobe area(function localization).TAN is all he said

Wernicke:speak fast&senseless.issue w coherent speech&comprehension

3000 BCE:Trepanation:make hole in skull.dont know why they did.maybe to relieve pressure/religion

egypt 17th cent.Bce:wrote about surgery.sprinkle head wound w oil:describe brain&diagnosis. understood spinal cord/neck injury physiological effect

1.Hippocrates(460-379BCE)-right
2.Aristotle(384-382BCE)-right
3.Gallen(130-200CE)-wrong.Roman empire Dr research animal&gladiator.ventricle(fluid filled cavities in head)important/send message through body

Hippocrates:Thoughts generated by brain.Study human body&meds.localized mind to brain tissue.epilepsy:seizure occur in brain from unseen damage
Aristotle:minds localized/link w <3(where thoughts are generated).

(1737-1798CE):Italian.Electrical stimulate frogs leg cause it to jerk(muscle contract).nerve send electrical signal experiment physiology on animals in basement.assistant want to use thing full of electricity.

(1758-1822 CE):French physician (was German).Found Cranioscopy/Phrenology:Different brain parts responsible for different personality traits.Mind reader infer on ppl based on their skull bombs/head

(1809-1882CE):English naturalist. Evolution:individual’s genetic composition(genotype)determine their physical trait(phenotype).Mutation&recombo introduce new genes&phenotypes into gene pool.natural selection:environment pressure make individuals w certain trait likely to survive,reproduce&pass on gene.individual variation among species

(1822-1911CE):English: Difference(characteristics:Intelligence,morals&personality)among ppl are innate&vary by individual.measure individual difference.Darwin’s cousin.eugenics:ppl w desirable trait marry&pass on genes to create more intelligent/creative community

1st to show communication across synapse occurs w chemical means.stimulated <3 of frog&switched fluid from it for other frog.if fast for 1,slowed down other(inhibited).result:nerves send messages by releasing chemicals

sherringtons student.Attach microelectrodes to stimulate presynaptic neuron axon.record postsynaptic neuron.stimulated axon 2x.delay between 2 epsps was short cause temporal summation

make comparisons across species.Cognition& behavior function determined/explained to extent by genetics&subject to selective pressure.present&past.

Compare/relate brain tissue from different species.Not additive.human brain isnt monkey brain w added tissue.Theres homologies (comparable part).Physiological&behavioral similarity across species

1.Easy Prob:What conscious states relate to what sort of brain activity?2.hard prob:universes made of matter&energy.Whys there consciousness& hows brain activity become conscious?
3.mind-brain prob:whats relationship between mental experience(mind)&brain activity.see consciousness as fundamental property of matter that cant be reduced to something else&cant explain why.

Dualism:Mind&brain are distinct substances∃ independently of each other.
Identity Position:Mind&brain are the same&described different ways.
Monism:only 1 type of substance Materialism:1 type of substance exists=matter(&energy)

Hermann von Helmholtz:theory of color-vision:explain everything by physical human body.minds identical to brain activity

1.Underlying behavior mechanisms&nerve principles are similar across species(even vertebrates). 2.easy to study nonhuman(simple machine).
3.What we learn tells us about our evolution 4.Interested for their sake&naturally curious 5.Legal/ethic restriction

Minimalist:tolerate certain kinds&prohibit others based on value of research,distress&type of animal.
Abolitionist:all animals should get same rights as human&killing is murder.Cage is slavery.intimidate&vandalize

legal standard:3 Rs:reduce # of animals,replace w substitute/computer&refine to lower pain/discomfort
IAC:vet,scientist&community member decides whats acceptable

1.Johannes Muller(1801-1858 CE):German physiologist.Law of specific nerve energy.
2.Rene Descartes(1596-1650 CE):French philosophy contribute to mind/body understanding&found reflex.

1.M:Law of specific energy:All nerves are the same&conduct electrical signal.signal perception &effect differ(depend on brain area nerves connect to&activate).ex.auditory area=sound related.Functional specify:certain neuron
2.D:Reflex:Human bodys a machine.Change in ventricle pressure determine behavior.open door to experiment pov to test ideas.statue has hidden mechanism you step on so they move. behavior explained w non-material soul connected to penal gland in brain.

-field of study&pov focus on brain function:behavior&experiences physiological,evolutionary&development mechanism.
types:1.Biological:emphasize goal:relate biology psych issues
2.neuroscience:stuff relevant to anatomy&chemistry.

1.physiological
2.ostogenetic:greek=being
3.evolutionary
4.functional
*Common sense behavior explanation:assume intention/goal wout reason

behaviour&cognition=brain&organ activity(muscle contraction)/body.deal w body machinery&chemical reaction enable hormone. ex.certain area of songbird brain grows w influence of testosterone so mature breeding M(its biggest)sing

describe how behavior structure form&gene,nutrition,experience&interaction influence.Ex. resist impulse form w maturation of frontal brain.ex.young M bird learn song.development need certain gene&chance to hear adult M sing in early sensitive life.Focus on development structure,cognitive process&behavior over lifespan.

remake history structure/behavior.characteristics are modifications of features left by ancestors.ex.certain species have same song b/c evolve from same ancestor.infer evolutionary history of structure,cognitive process/behavior. need assumption of how things change over time

why structure/behavior evolved as it did.genetic drift(accidental spread gene)in small pop& deliberate if prevelant in big pop.whats genes advantage.ex.M in bird species sings in reproductive season in his territory loud enough to be heard.function:attract F&warn M.Focus on present&past function that structure, cognitive process&behavior has to support organism’s life in world.why we have function/structure in brain&its use for survival in daily life.utility

Glia&neuron vary in function&form experience&behavior
Neuron:send info to eachother,muscles&glands vary w shape Glia:smaller&dont send info over big distance

CNS:central:brain(surrounded by skull)&spinal cord(surrounded by spinal vertebrae)&back of brain/retina
pns:peripheral:nervous system tissue except brain&spinal cord:muscle,glands.senses,prephory of body. all the way to fingers/toes

1.neuron:get info(electrical signal that determines cognition&behavior)&send to other cells.send info to eachother,muscles&glands vary w shape
2.Glia:smaller&dont send info over big distance.different function.hard to summarize. 10 per neuron.White matter.supportive role.hold/glue neurons together

1.Oligodendrocyte:CNS spinal cord
2.Schwann cell:PNS
3.Astrocytes:CNS
4.Radical Glia
5.Microglia:CNS
Phagocytosis:method:debris cleanup:remove waste/dead neuron

Oligodendrocyte&schwann cell

star shape.branches surround presynaptic terminal of functionally related axons.absorb chemical/transmitters/ions they release if few are active at once.temporarily inhibit axons connected to it&release them.job:prime axons to respond/act in synchrony(send messages in waves),structure&nutrition support neuron(control blood flow/nutrients to brain),isolate&surround synapses to chemical signalling/environment.dont transmit electric signal.Also phagocytosis

radial:guide neuron,axon&dendrite migration in embryonic development& differentiate into neurons, astrocytes &oligodendricyte after
microglia:small cells remove fungiµorganisms as part of immune system.more effective against certain viruses than others.also phagocytosis

Unipolar:Single branch comes from soma.near spinal cord.processes extend to skin,muscle,organ&gland.
Bipolar:2 branches come from soma:1 axon &1 dendrite.
Multipolar:Many branches come from soma;1 axon

Somatosense:transmit touch,temperature,pain
Autonomic system:direct gland&organ
Sensory neuron:specialize at 1 end to be sensitive to 1 stimulation type(light,sound,touch).receive info from external world

VEN:von economo neurone
1.Area:retina,cochlea,olfactory bulb&tongue.Transmits info in several sensory systems
2.Area:insula,ACC:anterior cingulate cortex.Gives fast,intuitive assessment of situation

100 billion in average human brain

cerebral cortex-12-15 billion

cerebellum=70 billion

spinal cord=1 billion

Motor neuron:has soma in spinal cord.gets excitation from neurons through dendrites& conducts impulse/info from CNS along axon to muscle(PNS):in spinal cord
Pyramidal cell:Cerebral cortex
Purkinje cell:Cerebellum

cells intristic of structure if its dendrites&neurons are in it.connect sensory&motor systems

function relate to distinct shape.Some lack axon&dendrites if small.have many dendrites&1 axon. Neurons also called grey matter:small gaps separate individual cells.
all also have soma/cell body

greek for tree.branch fibers/extentions get narrow near end.lined w specialized synaptic receptors where they get info from other neurons.dendritic spine:short growth increase surface area for more info

mean axis.thin fiber w consistent diameter longer than dendrites.send info/impulse to other neuron,organ&muscle.
Afferent axon:bring info into structure/brain area.sensory neuron

Efferent axon:sends info away from brain area. motor neuron

branches swell at tip for presynaptic terminal (end bulb,bouton:French for button),point where axon releases chemical that cross through junction between neurons.their axons dont have myelin sheaths.

1.myeline sheath:fat&protein material cover/insulate myelinated axon
2.nodes of ranvier:interrupt myeline sheath. 1 micrometer wide.

Axoplasmic transport:how proteins transported from neurons out.transportation of packaged stuff out of axon is different from transmission of electrical signal
Dynein:protein carries vesicles to soma.retrograde transport
Kinesin:protein carries synaptic vesicles(organelles) from soma.anterograde transport

greek for body.in most animal cells.Range is 0.005-0.1mm in mammal&1mm in invertibrate.covered w synapses on surface like dendrite.
1.membrane
2.nucleus
3.mitochondrion
4.ribosomes
5.protein channels
6.endoplasmic reticulum

membrane:border of neuron.8nm thick w 2 layers of phospholipid(fat)molecules flow around eachother.plasma structure on surface separate cell inside from world.protien channels in membrane let certain ions/chemicals like chloride, calcium, potassium,oxygen&water cross at controlled rate.

Nucleus:in all cells but red blood cells.contain chromosomes.turn to RNA to leave nucleus.
Mitochondrion:structure performs metabolic activity&oricudes energy for cell.need fuel&o2

Ribosomes:RNA translat/synthesize to new protein molecule(building material for cell&help chemical reaction).Float free in cell / attach to Endoplasmic reticulum(thin tubes network transport newly synthesized protiens to other area)

Immune system cells identify&kill virus(w you for life)&cell.vertibrates dont replace killed neurons.endothelial cells form capillary wall w tight junction inside brain separated w small gaps outside brain.Selectively permeable:lets some material in not others.

1.Passive movement:=small,uncharged gas(o2)&soluble molecule(dissolve membrane fat: vitamin A&D&drug effecting brain:antidepressant,psychiatric,illegal)cross
active transport:protein mediated process expends energy to pump chemicals from blood info brain:glucose(brains main fuel),iron,hormones,amino acid&vitamin.shrink in altzhimers

vertebrate neurons depend on glucose(sugar molecule).need oxygen.Ketones
also works but hard to find enough. Body needs thiamine to use glucose
Korsakoff’s syndrome:severe memory impairment from death of neurons in chronic alcoholism

Diffusion&electrostatic pressure

Molecules tend to move from areas of high to areas of low concentration across concentration gradient:difference in ions distribution across membrane.Na concentrated outside by laws of probability is more likely to enter than exit cell.

For charged particles (ions), particles w same charge repel each other&particles w opposite charges attract each other.Electrical gradient:opposite charge attract. pull +ve charged Na into -ve charged cell

autoimmune condition:immune system attack CNS.Demyelination axons
affects white matter in different areas.heritable&environmental factor. effect oligodendrocyte glia

neurons membrane has -70mv(potential voltage difference of electrical charge:-ve inside&+ve out).electrical gradient/polarized if inactive/ undisturbed. Sodium channel's closed so it can't move.K has opposite gradients.measure w:thin microelectrode insert into cell(glass tube filled w concentrated salt solution&tapering tip diameter.0005mm).reference electrode outside cell complete circuit.easier to see in squid axon b/c the axon is 1mm.

Cylindrical protein complex:In neuron membrane.bind to&let in ion type(selectively permeable).voltage gated channels to regulate Na&K.Membrane lets K(potassium ion)to cross(slowly).ctive transport:move 2 K ions in&3 Na out of cell.accumulate 10x more Na out than K in

1.stimulation depolarizes membrane.neuron fire&open Na channel.Na diffuse in&cell inside =+ve.
2.at 40mv:K channel open.no effect at 1st then repolarize:inside more –ve than +ve.+ve Na(competing force) push out +ve K
3.Hyperpolarize:K channel close slow&too much diffuse out.more polarized(-ve charge)if add -ve electrode to -ve cell.1% of Na in axon cross membrane(stay out side cell.concentrated).end w less K ion b/c k diffuse out faster than na.

a way to fix hyper polarization:fix concentrated gradients. diffusion because of electric gradience. Pottassium leaks out of through closed channel

cell resists action potential in hyper polarization stage.Na channel must be closed&K must leave cell faster than usual.1.absolute refractory period:membrane can't produce action potential even w stimulation for 1ms. 2.relative refractory period:need strong stimulus to initiate an action potential for 2-4ms

disturbance cause axon to send neuron message.start in axon at 1st node/mylen segment&go wout loss along axon.First, it back propagates into soma&dendrite(susceptible to structural change responsible for learning)that dont do action potentials the same way butpassively register electrical event occurring.act potential continues down each branch at same level if hits fork
fast depolarization.act potential regenerate at adjacent axon region to go down it. Needs 'nodes of Ranvier' to recreate it
influence by myelination:important for axon to send impulse fast&save energy

passive:unmyelinated axon.cant regenerate b/c no Na channel between node.stimuli must hit threshold(subthreshold:small response,fast decay).
salutatory:sulate:jump(latin) potention from each node down myelinate axon.sheaths short segments=node of ranvier(channels stimulate &admit Na)

difference between ionic intracellular(inside cell)&extracellular(outside cell.has the same composition as seawater)fluid composition gives neurone a energy source for electrical signal.differ in ion concentrations they contain.

action potential cant stop after it start.constrains how axon sends message(&convey rhythme.nervous system uses both)
act p. independent of stimuli intensity that start it.
axon cant send big/fast act p to show strong/weak stimuli difference
act p amplitude(peak),velocity(1-10m/s)&shape consistent w time for axon&vary by neurone.
thick axon=more velocity per sec

no axon,small exchange info w close neuron(excite/inhibit w contact).no all/none law.graded potential:vary in magnitude relate to stimuli intensity.change membrane potential sent to adjacent cell area.decay w travel.hard to study

role:signal within neurone
duration:1-2msec
size:100mv
character:all/none
propagate:active
channels:volt dependent na,k

role:signal between neuron
duration:5-10msec.~100
size:~20mv
character:graded depolarize
propagate:passive
channels: ligand gated na

role:signal between neurons
duration:5-10msec.~100
size:~15mv
character:graded hyperpolarize
propagate:passive
channels: ligand gated k&chloride

1.Santiago ramon y cajal
2.Charles sherrington

1800s.anatomically demonstrate&discovered narrow gap between neurons.discover neurons.Spanish.Neuron Doctrine:brain&peripheral nervous system made of distinct cells.Used stains by Camillo Golgi.want to be artist but dad refused.applied art to physiology.thought ppl are lazy if use theory instead of observing& experimenting&make things up.Hypothesis come&go&data stays

coin synapse(specialize gap/process at junction between neuron.how they communicate).1 muscle set relax if 1 gets excited.neuron 1 excite neuron 2&3.Excitatory message reach neuron 3(dendrite) b4 inhibition b/c it goes through 1 synapse not 2 for brief dendrite excitement(EPSP)in neuron 3.neuron 2 inhibits neuron 3.synapses chose to send message/not. presynaptic neuron:delivers transmition
postsynaptic neuron:receives message

excitation absence&active suppression.-ve ions enter/+ve ions leave.bring neuron away from threshold. interneuron(reflex)excite(stimulate)motor neuron to flexor muscle&inhibits input to motor neuron joined to extensor muscle(stops contraction)on same limb.resemble&=ly important in nervous system as EPSP.hyperpolarize when synaptic input open membrane gates to let potassium ion leave cell(w +ve charge)/chloride ion to enter cell(-ve charge).postsynaptic (graded)potential:caused by stimulation.inhibitor message cant flow along axon(only action potentials propagate along it)&decay w time/distance. regulate activity timing

depolarize from when sodium gates open&sodium enter cell membrane.brings neurons to threshold.decay fast if dont cause cell to reach threshold.+ve ions enter/-ve ions leave.flexation:sensory neuron excites 2nd neuron to excite motor neuron to excite muscle

EPSP&IPSP compete.are decision:determine if postsynaptic cell fires action potential.behavior depend on contribution of neuron network.spontaneous firing rate:periodic action potential produced wout synaptic input.most neurons have 1.EPSP increase action potential frequency above spontaneous rate&IPSP decrease it.If rate is 10 action potential/second,stream of epsp increase to 15&ipsp decrease it to 5.action potential velocity:40m/s along sensory/motor nerve

study reflex(automatic muscular response to stimuli).reflex arc(muscle response):pinch dogs foot.found separating spinal cord(control extension/flexation)&brain cause consistent reflex.reflex is slower than conduction along axon(delay reaction as impulse travel up axon from skin receptor to spinal cord&down leg to muscle).measure distance&speed impulse travel for response. conduction speed in reflex arc vary ~15m/s physiologically demonstrate communication between neurons(differs from axons)needed b/c neurons are separated. process slows conduction through reflex when 1 neuron communicates w other. found input produce IPSP& EPSP (on/off effects of nts depend on receptor. Eccles made same mistake)&summation.was wrong about synaptic transmission to fast to depend on chemical process(its not electrical).

39gif at same time can be >/< than double.some combos of synapses summate w eachother stronger& varies by time.temporal summation:repeat weak stimuli in same place/time has cumulative effect&stronger reflex.EPSP sequence combo exceed threshold=action potential.Spatial summation:synaptic inputs from separate location combine effect on neuron(pinch 2 spots at once).subthreshold excitation in postsynaptic neuron join w 2nd excitation=act potential

neurotransmitters are like a phone that conveys messages from sender to intended receivers.hormones are like radio that send message to all station receivers

chemicals neurons release at synapses effect other neurons.chemicals travel across synapse for communication between neurons.100s of them.each path begin w substance found in diet. categories:amino acid, gas, monoamines,purines.acetylcholines&neuropeptides

acid contain amine group(nh2):asparate,glycine(in spinal cord),glutamate(most abundant in nervous system), gaba(26type receptors).Phenylalanine&tyrosine:present in protein.precurser to catecholamines.phenylketonuria:lack enzyme to turn phenylalanine to tyrosine(from diet)&must minimize phenylalanine intake.Tryptophan:share/compete blood brain barrier transport system w other abundant big amino acid.amount in diet(soy high,maize low)precursor/ control brain serotonin level.increase serotonin if decrease phenylalanine&w eating carbohydrate(release insulin)

neurotransmitter:nitric oxide(NO).oldest transmitter.hard to make in lab&poison if alot.Many small local neurons make it w enzyme. link to blood flow if brain areas active.influence other neuron,dilate vessels.

neurontransmitter.category chemical. Atp:adenosine (bonds w ions in the potassium pump for action potentials)

neurotransmitter.chemical form by amino acid change.indoleamines:seretonine:7 families of receptors w different structures
catecholamines:compounds like dopamine,norepinephrine&epinephrine that contain catechol&amine group.

neurotransmitter.1 member family.chemical like amino acid w n(ch3)3 group not nh2.synthesize from choline(milk,peanut& egg).if see down in synaptic cleft:outer in neuron membrane&inner portion coil together to block sodium channel at rest

amino acid chain:endorphins(contraction endogenous morphines),substance p,neuropeptide y
-Neuropeptide/neuromodulators:resemble hormones.extert effects by altering gene activity.important for long term change in behavior/experience like hunger&thirst.intermediate.regulate emotion/motivation

Place synthesized:Cell body&slowly transport to other cell parts
Place released:Most from dendrites.also cell body&sides of axon
Released by:repeat depolarization/stimulation.dont release as often
Effect:On neighboring cell:release neuropeptide too after primed by few dendrites releasing it.
-Spread:diffuse to wide area in brain
-Duration:many minutes(20+minutes)
Inactivate/reuptake:diffuse away&are resyntehsised slowly(can exhaust supply)not deactivated

Place synthesized:Presynaptic terminal
Place released:Axon terminal
Released by:Single action potential
Effect:On neighboring cell:none
-Spread:effect receptors of adjacent postsynaptic cells
-Duration: ~ sec-few seconds
Inactivate/reuptake:don’t linger in postsynaptic membrane.inactivated different ways

neurons release 2+different nts kinds(some at same time&different branch)&respond to more types than those they release.Postsynaptic neuron:change activity/receptor.neuron switch transmitter w experience pattern.nervous system is flexible.

-Neuron synthesizes chemicals that serve as neurotransmitters. small neurotransmitters in axon terminal& neuropeptides in cell body.calcium(Ca:+ve charge) highly concentrated outside presynaptic neuron tip w closed channels at resting state.
vesicles:sphere pack store nts (except nitric oxide).maintain nts outside in presynaptic terminal (nts synthesized till release)
-Na action potential travel down axon to presynaptic terminal& depolarization open voltage dependent Ca channel.Ca bond w protein attached to membrane of presynaptic neuron(ATP)&pull apart.enter presynaptic neurone. Bonds w vesicles &presynaptic neuron membrane so they merge.action potential often fail exocytosis&amount varies
-Exocytosis:1-2ms after calcium enters.nts released into synaptic cleft(20-30nm space between presynaptic&postsynaptic neuron)&diffuse across it(.01ms). bond w postsynaptic membrane. neuron trigger channel open (excitatory:Na.inhibitory:K)
-Neurotransmitter molecules separate from their receptors
-Neurotransmitter molecules may be taken back into presynaptic neuron for recycling /diffuse away
*Some postsynaptic cells send reverse messages to control further release of nts by presynaptic cells

protiens tether presynaptic neuron to postsynaptic neuron&guide neurotransmitter molecules to receptors.Ligand/transmitter:nts control gated channel:open when chemical bind w receptor(chemical).

start 30ms+after transmitter release.slow lasting(few seconds):influence activity in whole cell for long time&initiate metabolic reaction sequence.use for taste,smell,pain,arousal,attention,pleasure&emotion
1st messenger:many nts(main:dopamine,seretonine&norepinephrine.also glutamate&gaba)carry info to postsynaptic cell,join metabotropic receptor.G protein(couple to guanosine triphosphate gtp:molecule stores energy)bends∂ entering cell membrane detaches from side of receptor:free to take energy in cell&rise concentration of 2nd messenger(cyclic amp:adenosine monophosphate)inside cell.2nd messenger communicates to many areas in cell,open&close ion channel in membrane&activate chromosome portion.

localize to 1 membrane point.correspond w brief on/off effect(start 1ms after transmitter attach& decay w 5ms ½ life).use for fast info change/update:hearing&vision.NTS bind w&twist ionotropic receptor to open channel to let certain ion in.main:gabba(inhibitory open chlorid gate for -ve charged chlorid to cross membrane)& glutamate(excitatory).Also glycine(inhibitory)&acertylcholine(excitatory:receptor fold out to widen sodium channel)

after it activates receptor,its broken by enzyme acetylcholinesterase into 2 fragments(acetate&choline).choline diffuses back to presynaptic neuron that takes it to reconnect w acetate in cell to form acetylcholine(efficient&time consuming).presynaptic neuron doesn’t reabsorb every molecule it releases. Rapid action potential series at any synapse depletes nts faster than presynaptic cell replenish it to slow/interrupt transmission

neurons that release it have enzyme MAO(monoamine oxidase:break transmitters into inactive chemicals). Monoamines don’t break down into inactive fragments at postsynaptic membrane&taken up by presynaptic neuron.they detatch&next activity varies by person/brain.presynaptic neuron takes most released nts intact to reuse w reuptake(special membrane proteins,transporters).any transmitter molecule not taken up by transporters are broken into enzyme called comt(catecholomethyltranferase)breakdown products wash away in blood&urine
COMT is an enzyme that converts catecholamines into inactive substances

brain has variety.receptors differ w chemical property,drug response&role in behavior.make drug for certain behavior b/c of different proteins in synapses.ppl react different to same drug.synapses abnormalities cause sleep disorders,anxiety&behavioral problem.

AMPT(alphamethylparatyrosine.no therapeutic use),antipsychotics&L-dopa(treat parkinsons)

(novocain&xylocaine)attach to Na channel membrane to stop Na from entering.Na channel close. apply to reduce pain.prevent action potentials.

tetrodotoxin:sodium channel block stop action potential

chemically resemble nts:hallucinogenic, cholinergic,dopaminergic,THC,Opiate

distort perception:LSD:lysergic acid diethylamide:resemble serotonin attach to&stimulate serotonin type 2a receptor(5ht2a) at inappropriate time/duration cause subjective effect.

Nicotine:compound stimulates acetylcholine receptor(nicotinic:in CNS&skeletal muscles nerve-muscle junction)on neurons that release dopamane.
Clostridium botulinum:affect muscle&autonomic nervous system
Curare:plant from Amazon south America region.used on dart tip&muscle relaxant
Organophospate:phosophoric acid esters in insecticide,herbicide,nerve gas, solvent&plasticizers.great Ach release overstimulate muscle fiber&cause convulsions

reserpine interfere w serotonin storage.prescribe for high blood pressure.cause depression

MDMA:hallucinogenic:increase serotonin release, temperature(damage neuron),hydrogen peroxide in brain(damage mitochondria)if high dose

Mao inhibiter:treat depression.interfere w monamine breakdown in axon terminal

typtophan:increase food w it increase serotonin

SSRI:prozac inhibit serotonin reuptake

stimulant:increase excitement,motivation,alertness,motor activity&mood.inhibit dopamine transporter:block reuptake&increase accumulation&effect in synaptic cleft.comt breaks down excess dopamine faster than presynaptic cell replace it.In few hours after taken, user has dopamine deficit w withdrawal.also block serotonin/norepinephrine transporter to increase them
Methaphetamines effects like cocaine(rush)&hetamine but stronger.
Antidepresent:weaker than amphetamine&cocaine.1st were mao inhibiters
Methylphenidate/ritalin:for adhd.block same way at same brain receptor w same effect/addiction w different time&course as cocaine.give gradual concentration increase over hour then decline.
Amphetamine:reverse dopamine transporter&increase release from presynaptic terminal.
MDMA:methylenedioxymethamphetamine/ecstasy:increase dopamine release at low dose

THC:active ingredient in marijuana attaches to cannabinoid receptors through brain(cerebral cortex, cerebellum, basal ganglia&hippocampus not in medulla(don’t affect respiration&<3).located on presynaptic neuron&inhibit glutamate&GABA release)
Endogenous chemical:anandamide&2 AG are retrograde transmitters:attach to receptors:intesify sensory experience/time slowing&impair memory

derived from opium poppy:morphine,heroin, methodone.used wout knowing effect on brain for centuries.exert effect by binding same receptors as endorphins neuropeptide in brain.decrease sensitivity to pain&increase relaxation.

made by endocrine gland.a chemical secrete by cells in a body part&sent by blood.influence other cells for lasting
change in many body parts.many chemicals act as nts&hormones.Protein/peptide(short chain)hormone:made of amino acid.join to membrane receptor&activate 2 messenger(metabotropic synapse)

-ve feedback system maintain constant circulating hormone(modify brain activity)level.synthesize varied release hormones(secrete in brain:go through blood to promote/inhibit pituitary gland hormone release).

epinephrine,norepinephrine:same act as sympathetic nervous system(nerve set accelerates heartbeat,relax stomach muscle,dilates pupil®ulate organs.elliot thought it was electric&worked w adrenaline)

aldosterone(reduce salt release in urine)
cortisol(raise blood sugar&metabolism)

insulin(help glucose enter cell)
glucagon(help convert stored fat into blood glucose)

melatonin(tiredness,puberty)

from neural tissue.hypothalamus extension.synthesize antidiuretic hormone(after go down axons,it release them into blood) like oxytocin (uterine contraction,milk release,sex pleasure) &vasopressin(raise blood pressure,lower urine volume)

from glandular tissue.attach to hypothalamus. synthesize stimulating hormone:increase production like thyroid (stimulate thyroid gland),luteinizing(ovulation),follicle(ovum, sperm), acth(steroid hormone made by adrenal gland),prolactin(milk produce)&growth(add body growth)

estrogen&progesterone(f sex characteristics&pregnant

testosterone(m sex characteristic&pubes)

renin(regulate blood pressure, contribute to hypovolemic thirst)

leptin(decrease appetite)