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127 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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development
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predictable changes that occur in structure or function over the life span
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developmental psychology
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the scientific discipline that examines changes in psychological characteristics occurring over a lifetime (as well as the physical changes associated with them)
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ontogeny
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development of the individual over his or her lifetime
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phylogeny
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evolution of the species
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Child Study Movement
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social movement begun in the U.S. around 1900 that proposed the systematic application of science principles to the study of children
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stability
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in developmental psychology, the degree to which a person maintains over time the same rank order in comparison with peers for a particular characteristic
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plasticity
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the extent to which behavior or brain functioning can be changed
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discontinuity versus continuity of development
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the scientific debate over whether developmental change is gradual (continuous) or relatively abrupt (discontinuous)
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normative approach
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approach in psychology concerned with features that all people have in common
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developmental function
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the form that development takes over time
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idiographic approach
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approach to psychology that is concerned with individual differences among people, as opposed to concern with features that all people have in common
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nature/nurture
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debate concerned the degree to which biology ("nature") and experience ("nurture") influence the development of any psychological characteristic and its development
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empiricism
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philosophical perspective that nature provides only species-general learning mechanisms, with cognition arising as a result of experience.
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nativism
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philosophical perspective that human intellectual abilities are innate
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genetic determinism
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the idea that one's genes determine one's behavior
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developmental systems theory
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the perspective that development is not simply "produced" by genes, nor constructed by the environment, but emerges from the continuous bidirectional interaction between all levels of biological and environmental factors.
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epigenesis
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the mergence of new structures and functions during the course of development
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preformationism
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the idea that development is just the expression of previously fully formed structures
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structure
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in developmental psychology, a substrate of the organism that develops, such as muscle, nervous tissue, or mental knowledge
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function
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in developmental psychology, action related to a structure, such as movement of a muscle, nerve firing, or the activation of a mental representation.
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sensitive period
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the time in development (usually early in life) when a certain skill or ability can be most easily acquired.
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validity
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the extent to which a measurement accurately assesses what it purports to measure.
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reliability
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the trustworthiness of a research finding: includes interobserver reliability and replicability.
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parsimony
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preference for the simplest scientific explanation for a phenomenon
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structured interviews
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interviews in which participants are asked a set of standardized questions under conditions in which the researcher can control extraneous factors that may influence a child's behavior
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clinical interviews
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interviews, used extensively by Piaget, in which the examiner probes a child's knowledge about a given topic
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questionnaires
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a from of self-reports in which participants respond to a series of questions designed to get at some specific aspect of people's behavior, thinking, or feelings
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standardized tests
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special types of questionnaires that are administered following consistent, standardized instructions.
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observational studies
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studies in which researchers identify a type of behavior they are interested in and observe children in specific situations for the incidence of those behaviors. They can be naturalistic or structured and typically do not involve an experimental manipulation of variables.
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case study
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detailed description of a single individual made by an expert observer
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correlational studies
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type of study that examines two or more factors to determine if changes in one are associated with changes in another
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experimental studies
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type of studies in which a researcher manipulates one or more factors, then observes how these manipulations change the behavior under investigation
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independent variables
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in experimental studies, the factors, or variables, that are modified to see their effect on the dependent, or outcome, variables.
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dependent variables
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the "outcome" variable, or behavior, that is being studied
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quasi-experimental studies
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studies in which assignment of participants to conditions is not made at random (for example, male vs female)
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naturalistic studies
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studies in which the researcher observes individuals in their own environments, intervening as little as possible
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longitudinal studies
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type of developmental studies that assesses developmental change by following a person or group of people over an extended period of time
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cross-sectional studies
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type of developmental studies that compares different individuals of different ages at the same point in time
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cross-sequential approach
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type of developmental studies that combines aspects of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs; groups of participants at different ages are tested, and then followed longitudinally.
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cohort effects
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the psychological effects associated with being a member of a group born at a particular time (for example, a generation) and place; the fact that people who are living in a culture at the same time are influenced by the same historical events.
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microgenetic studies
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studies assessing some target behaviors of participants repeatedly over relatively short intervals of time, usually days or weeks
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sociohistorical context
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the values, tools, and institutions found in one's society
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mechanistic theories
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theories of development that liken people to machines, such as the mind-as-a-computer model of information-processing approaches
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organismic theories
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developmental theories that take a holistic (organism-like) view of development, seeing people as whole beings who cannot be understood by decomposing them into their constituent parts
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behaviorism
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theory popular in the United STates throughout the middle of the 20th century, holding that behavior and development are shaped by environmental influences
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applied behavior analysis
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Extension of B. F. Skinner's behaviorism to practical setting
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social learning/social cognitive theory
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Bandura's theory of how individuals operate cognitively on their social experiences and how these cognitive operations influence behavior and development
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operant (instrumental) conditioning
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learning procedure where behavior is shaped through rewards and punishments
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vicarious reinforcement
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In Bandura's social cognitive theory, learning from observing others' behaviors and their consequences, without the need to receive specific reinforcement for one's behavior
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reciprocal determinism
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in Bandura's theory, the belief that children have as much of an effect on their environment as their environment has on them
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sensorimotor period
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in Piaget's theory, the first major stage of cognitive development (birth to approximately 2 years), in which children understand their world through sensory and motor experience
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preoperational period
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in Piaget's theory, the second major stage of cognitive development (approximately ages 2 to 7), characterized by prelogical, intuitive thought
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concrete operational period
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the third major stage of cognitive development in Piaget's theory, in which children can decenter their perception, are less egocentric, and can think logically about concrete objects (ages 7 to 11)
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formal operational period
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in Piaget's theory, the final stage of cognitive development, in which children are able to apply abstract logical rules
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developmental contextual approaches
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perspective that views development as the result of bidirectional interaction between all levels of biological and experimental variables.
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dynamic system
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a set of elements that undergoes change over time as a result of interactions among the elements. Dynamic systems theories propose that developmental differences emerge as a result of the self-organization of lower-level elements.
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sociocultural theory
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a perspective of cognitive development that emphasizes that individual development is socially mediated, and historically and culturally conditioned.
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tools of intellectual adaptation
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Vygotsky's term for tools a culture provides for thinking
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general genetic law of cultural development
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in Vygotsky's theory, the idea that cognition occurs on two plans: first the social, between individuals, and later the psychological, as it is internalized by the child.
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zone of proximal development
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in Vygotsky's theory, the difference between a child's actual level of ability and the level of ability that he or she can achieve when working under the guidance of a more qualified instructor (adult or older child)
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guided participation
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the process and system of involvement of individuals with others as they communicate and engage in shared activities
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apprenticeship in thinking
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routine transactions between child and adults, with novice children improving their skills and understanding through participation with more skilled partners in culturally organized activities.
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ecological systems theory
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Bronfenbrenner's theory that views development as occurring within embedded spheres: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macro system, and the chronosystem
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microsystem
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in Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, all of the different social systems in which a child is an active participant (for example, a child's family, school and peer group).
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mesosystem
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in Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, all of the possible microsystems in interaction.
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exosystem
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in Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, all of the social systems in which children are not regularly part of, but which nonetheless influence their lives (parents job for example)
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macrosystem
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in Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, all of the values, attituds, laws, ideology, and so forth of the culture in which children and adolescents live.
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chronosystem
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in Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, the system that reflects the fact that the child and the other systems change with time
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natural selection
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primary mechanism for species evolution described by Darwin that, in which some members of a species are more fit than others and thus more likely to survive and reproduce
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evolutionary psychology
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the application of the principles of modern evolutionary biology to explain human behavior.
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evolved cognitive mechanisms
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information-processing mechanisms shaped by natural selection during the environments of evolutionary adaptedness to deal with specific and recurrent problems faced by our ancestors, such as getting food, avoiding predators, and finding and keeping a mate.
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environment of evolutionary adaptedness
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ancestral environments during which human nature was shaped
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hominids
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group of animals in the line that led to homo sapiens
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domain-specific mechanisms
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cognitive abilities specific to one cognitive domain under control of a specific mind/brain function
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domain-general mechanisms
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general, underlying cognitive abilities that influence performance over a wide range of situations (or domains)
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adaptations
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in evolutionary theory, universal and reliably developing inherited features that arose as a result of natural selection and helped to solve some problem in the environment of evolutionary adaptedness
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evolutionary developmental psychology
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the application of the principles of modern evolutionary biology to explain human development.
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naturalistic fallacy
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the erroneous idea that something is good because it is natural.
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deferred adaptations
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aspects of childhood that serve as preparations for adulthood and were selected over the course of evolution
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ontogenetic adaptations
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behaviors that play a specific role in survival for an individual at one time only and then disappear when they are no longer needed
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human genome
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a description of all of a human's genetic materila
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law of segregation
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Mendel's law stating that for each inherited trait there are two elements of heredity that segregate clearly during reproduction so that an offspring receives either one element or another, never some blend of both
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law of independent assortment
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Mendel's law stating that different traits are inherited independently, so that the inheritance of one trait does not affect inheritance of another
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chromosomes
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the rod-shaped strands of DNA found in the nucleus of cells that contain genetic information
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DNA
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deoxyribonucleic acid, the self-replicating molecule of which chromosomes are made
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gene
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the basic unit of heredity; segment of DNA that codes for a particular protein
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monogenic inheritance
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traits that are influenced by only a single pair of genes
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allelles
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different versions of the same gene
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genotypes
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an individual's entire genetic endowment
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phenotype
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the actual expression of a genetic trait
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mutations
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irregularities in the DNA duplication process that result in an altered genetic message
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sickle-cell anemia
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a disease associated with two recessive genes that causes malformations of the red blood cells; however, carries of a single recessive gene have heightened resistance to malaria.
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polygenic inheritance
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inherited traits that are determined by multiple genes
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norm of reaction
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all of the possible phenotypes that could result from a single genotype, given all of the possible environments an organism could be exposed to
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meiosis
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the type of cell division that occurs when sperm and ova are being formed, resulting in half the number of chromosomes in each gamete compared to body cells
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crossing over
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a process of genetic exchange that occurs during meiosis, when tow corresponding chromosomes exchange pieces of DNA
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autosomes
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chromosome pairs 1 through 22
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sex chromosomes
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in humans, the 23rd chromosome pair that determines gender
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sex-linked inheritance
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recessive traits that are inherited by way of a single gene on the sex chromosome, usually the X chromosome; also called x-linked inheritance.
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Down syndrome
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chromosome abnormality, in which an individual has an extra 21st chromosome; also known as trisomy 21
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Turner syndrome
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a chromosomal disorder in females in which one X chromosome is missing, resulting in total complement of only 45 chromosomes
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behavioral genetics
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discipline that focus on the study of genetic effects on behavior
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concordance rates
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the probability that one member of a pair of individuals 9for example, identical or fraternal twins) will display a trait possessed by the other member
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heritability
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the extent to which differences in any trait within a population can be attributed to inheritance
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shared environment
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an environment shared by different family members (for example, two siblings)
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nonshared environment
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an environment that is unique to an individual, not shared by a sibling, for instance.
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genotype -> environment theory
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Scarr and McCartney's theory that one's genotype (genetic constitution) influences which environments one encounters and the type of experiences one has, or that genes drive experience
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fallopian tube
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the tubes through which mature ova travel from the ovaries to the uterus, and where conception takes place
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prenatal period
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the 38 weeks the embryo/fetus spends developing inside the mother's reproductive system, beginning at conception and ending at birth
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germinal phase
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earliest phase of prenatal development, beginning when the ovum is penetrated by a sperm in the fallopian tube and starts its journey, as a zygote, down to the uterus.
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zygote
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the single-celled organism formed from the union of egg and sperm at the earliest phase of prenatal development
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blastocyst
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early stage in prenatal development, in which the zygote begins dividing and forms into a hollow sphere
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embryonic phase
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the prenatal period from approximately 2 to 8 weeks after conception, during which organs are formed and begin to function
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placenta
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the organ along the uterine wall of a pregnant woman that serves as the transport system between mother and fetus
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fetal phase
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the prenatal period from approximately 8 weeks after conception to birth
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cephalocaudal development
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the head-to-foot sequence of physical growth
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teratogens
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external agents, such as drugs and radiation, that can have harmful effects on a developing embryo or fetus
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Rh factor incompatibility
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Mismatch between the mother's and the fetus's Rh type (a blood protein). Namely if Rh of the fetus is positive, and the Rh of its mother is negative, complications can occur because of the production of antibodies in the mother that can attack red blood cells in the fetus.
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assisted reproductive techniques (ART)
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Technologies, most including in vitro fertilization, that facilitate couples to become parents
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in vitro fertilization (IVF)
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fertilization of the egg by the sperm outside of the woman's body
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Cesarean section (C-section)
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delivery of a baby through a surgical incision in the abdomen
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natural (prepared) childbirth
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method of labor and childbirth that does not involve anesthetics, in which a woman and her partner/coach receive education in areas such as relaxation and breathing
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postpartum depression
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a mother's strong feelings of sadness or resentment shortly after giving birth
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neonate
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an infant from birth through the first month of life
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Apgar scale
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a test that evaluates a baby's biological fitness at birth
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kangaroo care
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a practice that has been found to improve premature infants' development, consisting of putting them between the mother's breasts to facilitate nursing and to keep the baby warm
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Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
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The death of a seemingly healthy infant during sleep for no apparent reason during the first year of life
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