Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
142 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What do attitudes consist of? |
Belief, feelings, and behavioral dispositions.
|
|
|
Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory
|
Conflict is felt when one's attitudes do not match their behaviors; this conflict may result in an attitude change.
|
|
|
Free-choice (Festinger)
|
A person makes a decision between several desirable alternatives, this leads to post-decisional dissonance, since the person did not choose the other appealing alternative.
|
|
|
Forced-compliance (Festinger)
|
A person is forced to choose something that they would naturally avoid doing, resulting in dissonance.
|
|
|
Minimal Justification Effect
|
Festinger and Carlsmith - Boring task experiment; when dissonant behavior can be externally justified, there is no need to change cognitions; however, if the justification is low, then cognitions must be changed to reduce dissonance.
|
|
|
2 main principles of cognitive dissonance:
|
1. If someone does something that is contrary to their beliefs, they will seek to change their attitudes.
2. The greater the pressure to comply, the less attitude change. Attitude change mainly results when the dissonant behavior is induced with minimum pressure. |
|
|
Bem’s Self-Perception Theory
|
When a person’s attitudes are weak, they form their beliefs of said attitudes based on their behaviors (for example if someone asks you if you like seafood, you may say you don’t just because you rarely eat it).
|
|
|
Overjustification Effect
|
Externally rewarding someone for something they already enjoy doing will result in them enjoying the task less; they begin to attribute the external reward as the real reason they perform the task.
|
|
|
Hovland's Model
|
Deals with attitude change as a result of communication; 3 parts: communicator, communication, and situation; more credible the communicator, more impact the message has.
|
|
|
Petty and Cacioppo’s Elaboration Likelihood Model
|
2 routes of persuasion: central and peripheral; central route involves the listener paying close attention to the argument, requires stronger messages to convince the listener; peripheral route involves listeners that are not paying much attention, strong messages are not required in this route, what matters is how, by whom, and in what environment is the argument being made
|
|
|
Reactance
|
If social pressure to behave a certain way is incredibly blatant, then people may seek to act in an opposing manner.
|
|
|
Festinger's Social Comparison Theory
|
We tend to evaluate ourselves in relationship to other people; the more different the two groups of people are, the less likely they will make a comparison.
|
|
|
Gain-Loss Principle
|
Changes in evaluation have more of an impact than constant evaluations; if someone’s liking of us has shown a gain, it will have a greater impact than someone who has always liked us.
|
|
|
Social Exchange Theory
|
People weigh the pros and cons of interacting with others; the equity theory further proposes that we weigh the pros on cons not only of ourselves but of the other party as well.
|
|
|
Attraction
|
- Need complimentarity: People choose relationships so that they can mutually satisfy each other’s needs (people who like to talk pair up with people who like to listen)
- Attractiveness stereotype: People attribute other positive qualities to those who are attractive - Spatial proximity: People are more likely to be attracted to those who are geographically closer to them - Mere exposure hypothesis (Zajonc): Repeated exposure to a stimulus results in greater liking of it |
|
|
Social learning theory
|
Aggression is learned through modeling and/or reinforcement (Bobo doll study)
|
|
|
Asch’s conformity study
|
Length of black lines, people would choose the wrong answer to conform with the group.
|
|
|
Fundamental attribution error
|
The tendency for people to attribute others’ behavior to internal characteristics as opposed to external situations.
|
|
|
Laissez-faire
|
Lewin’s study of leadership styles - groups were less organized, less efficient, and less satisfying
|
|
|
Autocratic
|
Lewin’s study of leadership styles - groups were more hostile, more aggressive, and more dependent on the leader; quantity of work was the greatest among the styles
|
|
|
Democratic
|
Groups were more satisfying and cohesive; motivation and interest in the work was the strongest among the styles.
|
|
|
Developmental Psychology 17th and 18th Century
|
17th and 18th centuries; British empiricist school of thought (Hobbes, Berkeley, Hume, Mill, Locke, and Stuart): Believed that all knowledge is gained through experience; changed the views that children were merely smaller, inferior adults.
|
|
|
Rousseau
|
believed that society is unnecessary and detrimental to a child’s development, disagreed with Locke
|
|
|
Hall
|
Hall was one of the first psychologists to perform empirical research on children; he later became one of the founders of the APA and was the founder of child and adolescent psychology.
|
|
|
Tyron
|
Tyron’s study of maze-running rats showed that very specific behaviors can have a genetic basis (proven through selective breeding).
|
|
|
Prenatal Development
|
* Human sex cells (gametes) combine in the fallopian tubes to form a zygote
* Germinal period: Zygote travels down fallopian tube and is implanted in the uterine wall * Embryonic period: Eight weeks after germinal period; embryo size increases 2 million percent * Fetal period: Begins in the third month; measurable electrical brain activity |
|
|
Moro
|
A newborn reflex - Reaction to abrupt movements by flinging out their arms and them hugging themselves.
|
|
|
Grasping
|
A newborn reflex - Closing their fingers around objects that are placed in their hands.
|
|
|
Piaget
|
Children learn through behavioral schemata, which is characterized by action tendencies; older children learn through operational schemata, characterized by abstract representations of cognition.
|
|
|
Piaget’s four stages
|
Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational
|
|
|
Sensorimotor Stage
|
(0-2)
- Primary circular reactions: Infant begins to coordinate separate aspects of movement; this is the advent of goal-oriented behavior - Secondary circular reactions: Similar to primary, except the behaviors manipulate objects in the environment as opposed to simply manipulating the body |
|
|
Preoperational
|
(2-7)
- Object permanence: Realization that objects continue to exist even if the infant is not directly perceiving them - Beginning of representational thought - Children have not mastered conservation (knowledge that properties of matter such as volume do not change when the appearance of something changes) - Centration: Tendency to only be able to focus on one aspect of a phenomenon (egocentrism) |
|
|
Concrete Operational
|
(7-11)
- Children master conservation and are able to take the perspectives of others into account |
|
|
Formal Operational
|
(11+)
- Child can now think logically about abstract ideas |
|
|
Vygotsky
|
Argued that cognitive development results from a child’s internalization of various aspects of culture (rules, language, symbols, etc).
|
|
|
Phonology
|
Actual sounds of a language (separate of environmental noises); includes categorical perception (ability to separate noises that do and do not denote differences in meaning)
|
|
|
Pragmatics
|
Efficient use of language (inflections and understanding that a sentence may have two meanings)
|
|
|
Chomsky
|
Suggested an innate language acquisition device (LAD) thought to be triggered by exposure to language.
|
|
|
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
|
Trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, integrity vs. despair
|
|
|
Sheldon
|
Characterized people’s personalities by their body types: endomorphy (soft, spherical), mesomorphy (hard, muscular), and ectomorphy (thin, fragile).
|
|
|
Pinel
|
1792 - made major reforms to asylums, removing shackles and giving patients beds.
|
|
|
Dix
|
1841 - 1888 - a zealous advocate of treating the mentally ill humanely in the U.S.
|
|
|
General Paresis
|
19th century: The etiological cause of general paresis (mental deterioration and death caused by syphilis); this was an important discovery because it linked physical causes to mental illness.
|
|
|
Kraepelin
|
1883, Kraepelin noted that certain symptom patterns occurred regularly enough that they could be categorized as specific disorders; his classification system was a precursor to the DSM-IV.
|
|
|
Jung
|
Archetype: Thought or image that has an emotional meaning
2. Anima (female) and Animus (male): Help us understand gender characteristics 3. Shadow: Helps us understand human characteristics that were adopted from lower evolutionary forms; responsible for socially unacceptable thoughts |
|
|
Adler
|
- Attention was focused on societal demands and how they affect unconscious factors; people are mainly motivated by striving for superiority
- Coined the term “inferiority complex” - Creative self: The force by which each person shapes their own uniqueness and personality - Style of life: Manifestation of creative self; the manner in which a person obtains superiority - Fictional finalism: A person is more motivated by what they believe will happen in the future as opposed to past experiences |
|
|
Horney
|
- Neurotic personalities are fed by one of many needs that are directed at making life more
bearable - These needs are similar to healthy needs except they are: 1. Disproportionate in intensity 2. Indiscriminate in application 3. Partially ignorant to reality 4. Anxiety-provoking - To overcome basic anxiety, people must either move toward people, against people, or away from people depending on the situation. |
|
|
Neo-Freudian
|
Approaches focus more on current interpersonal relationships as opposed to past childhood experiences.
|
|
|
Seligman
|
theory of learned helplessness (electrocuting dogs experiment)
|
|
|
Lewin
|
believed that personality is constantly changing.
|
|
|
Maslow
|
Humanism - Hierarchy of Needs: Lowest levels consist of physiological needs, then belongingness and love, then esteem and cognitive needs, and lastly self-actualization (the need to realize one’s fullest potential; most people don’t reach this)
|
|
|
Cattell
|
used factor analysis to determine the structure of personality based on 16 traits
|
|
|
Allport
|
listed 3 basic traits: cardinal (around which a person centers their life), central (major characteristics that are easy to estimate), and secondary (personal characteristics that are limited in occurrence); defined the term functional autonomy (a trait or behavior that may become a goal in and of itself)
|
|
|
Rotter
|
defined the internal and external locus of control (believing that one is responsible for their own fate or believing that one’s fate is determined by external forces respectively)
|
|
|
Axis IV
|
Lists any psychosocial or environmental stresses that may interfere with treatment
|
|
|
Axis V
|
Clinician’s judgment of the client’s overall functioning level (using the Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF)
|
|
|
Double-bind hypothesis
|
Schizophrenia - States that schizophrenia develops through prolonged exposure contradictory messages from the patient’s caregiver.
|
|
|
Dopamine Hypothesis
|
States that delusions and hallucinations arise from either an excess of dopamine or from overly-sensitive dopamine receptors
|
|
|
Catecholamine Theory of Depression
|
Norepinephrine and serotonin have been the main
neurotransmitters linked to depression and mania; too much NE and SE leads to mania, while too little leads to depression |
|
|
Thomas Szasz
|
Author of The Myth of Mental Illness, believes labeling someone mentally ill is simply a way to force them to conform to society
|
|
|
Gall
|
had one of the first theories of how behavior and intellect might be linked to brain anatomy; if a particular trait was well developed, then the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand (this led to phrenology)
|
|
|
Flourens
|
studied brain function through extirpation, a process in which parts of the brain are removed and behavioral effects are observed
|
|
|
James'
|
views formed functionalism, a system that is concerned with how mental processes help people adapt to their environment
|
|
|
Sensory neurons
|
Afferent
|
|
|
Motor Neurons
|
Efferent
|
|
|
Reticular Formation
|
Regulates arousal, alertness, and attention.
|
|
|
Thalamus
|
Sensory relay station (not including smell)
|
|
|
Basal ganglia
|
Coordinates muscle movement; plays a role in Parkinson’s disease
|
|
|
Frontal Lobe
|
Governs many cognitive and behavioral processes; location of Broca’s area (speech production)
- Prefrontal cortex: Known as an association area (a region that deciphers numerous types of inputs in order to solve a problem); prefrontal lobotomies lobotomies were previously used to treat schizophrenia (didn’t work, just made patients easier to handle) - Motor cortex: Initiates voluntary motor movements and is therefore considered a projection area of the brain |
|
|
Parietal
|
Somatosensory cortex; involved in spatial processing.
|
|
|
Temporal
|
Auditory cortex; Wernice’s area (speech comprehension)
|
|
|
Sperry and Gazzaniga
|
Studied the effects of severing the corpus callossum.
|
|
|
Glial cells
|
support neurons; the main purpose of theses cells is to myelinate the axons of neurons; myelin insulates axons and speeds up neurotransmitters through saltatory conduction
|
|
|
Dendrites
|
Differ from axons in that they are not myelinated and the branching pattern of dendrites can change over time and regenerate when damaged.
|
|
|
Neural conduction within a neuron
|
is an electrical process, whereas neural conduction between neurons is a chemical process
|
|
|
Resting potential
|
A slight electrical (negative) charge of about –70 millivolts inside the neuron’s cell membrane; this membrane is semipermeable, meaning it allows some substances through and not others
|
|
|
The resting stage of a neuron
|
is polarized, because the overall charge inside the neuron is negative whereas the outside charge is more positive; maintaining a slight negative charge inside the neuron is crucial to ensure that the energy stored inside of it is not negated out
|
|
|
firing neuron
|
occurs in a four-stage event: resting potential, depolarization, action potential spike, and hyperpolarization
|
|
|
Depolarization
|
occurs when a stimulus causes the membrane’s potential to increase to the threshold potential (about –50mV)
|
|
|
Upon reaching the threshold
|
the membrane produces a rapid electrical impulse called the action potential spike when the cell membrane’s charge becomes positive for a fraction of a second; the charge becomes positive by allowing sodium ions into the cell
|
|
|
repolarized
|
The cell membrane then becomes repolarized by allowing the sodium ions to leave the cell and the cell’s negative charge is restored
|
|
|
hyperpolarization
|
stage occurs because the initial release of sodium ions overshoots the desired negative charge, resulting in charge the is more negative than desired; during this stage, the cell membrane becomes resistant to once again allow the inflow of sodium ions and the voltage level gradually returns to a normal resting potential
|
|
|
Refractory period
|
An interval when a neuron can’t fire again until it has completed its original action potential cycle; divided into two stages, absolute and relative.
|
|
|
Absolute refractory period
|
Occurs when depolarization occurs, during this time a neuron is completely unresponsive to additional stimuli
|
|
|
Relative refractory period
|
Occurs when a neuron has achieved its action potential spike and repolarization begins; during this time, a stronger stimulation is required to reach threshold potential
|
|
|
All-or-nothing Law
|
Once a membrane reaches threshold potential, it will always fire to the same voltage of about +35mV; regardless of the intensity of the stimulation that triggered it
|
|
|
axon hillock
|
An action potential originates at the axon hillock, a small elevation on the neuron where the axon meets the soma; depolarization occurs at the nodes of Ranvier (gaps in the myelin)
|
|
|
Presynaptic membrane:
|
The membrane of the terminal button
|
|
|
Vesicles
|
Tiny sacs that store neurotransmitters (NTs)
|
|
|
Postsynaptic membrane
|
The dendrite side of the synaptic cleft; contains receptors
|
|
|
NTs in a synapse can...
|
1. Metabolism: Attach to the receptor sites and get taken into the dendrite
2. Remain in the synapse where they will be washed away |
|
|
Once a NT binds to a receptor,
|
it emits a tiny electrical charge called a postsynaptic potential (PSP); two things can then happen: it can make the neuron more likely to fire (excitatory postsynaptic potential) or less likely to fire (inhibitory postsynaptic potential)
|
|
|
PSP
|
are graded potentials, meaning their voltage level varies and they are not subject to the all-or-nothing law
|
|
|
Kandel
|
discovered that sea snails can become habituated from certain stimuli, thereby demonstrating that changes in synaptic transmission result in changes in behavior
|
|
|
Acetylcholine
|
Found in the central and peripheral NS; in the parasympathetic NS, it is used to transmit nerve impulses to muscles; acetylcholine has been linked to Alzheimer’s
|
|
|
catecholamines
|
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine are all catecholamines; they all play an important role in emotion
|
|
|
Norepinephrine
|
Controls alertness and wakefulness; implicated in mood disorders such as mania and depression along with serotonin
|
|
|
Dopamine
|
Controls movement and posture; high concentration of dopamine is found in the basal ganglia; imbalance in dopamine levels has been linked to schizophrenia; Parkinson’s disease has been linked to a reduction of dopamine-sensitive neurons in the basal ganglia; tardive dyskinesia, a syndrome resembling Parkinson’s, results from long-term antipsychotic medication use
|
|
|
Parkinson’s
|
can be treated with L-dopa, a drug which increases dopamine levels in the brain; orally ingesting dopamine doesn’t work because of the blood-brain barrier, which L-dopa can pass through; L-dopa can lead to an oversupply of dopamine, which can result in psychotic symptoms
|
|
|
Serotonin
|
Regulates mood, appetite, sleeping, and arousal; since serotonin and norepinephrine have been linked to depression, this has led to a class of anti depressants known as SSRIs such as Prozac
|
|
|
GABA
|
Inhibitory NT, produces IPSPs; stabilizes neural activity in the brain
|
|
|
Peptides
|
Two or more amino acids joined together; cause a more complicated chain of events in the postsynaptic membrane, and therefore are slower and have a longer effect; endorphins (natural pain killers) are the most important peptide to know about
|
|
|
Sedative-Hypnotics
|
(depressants)
- Slow down the central nervous system - Reduce anxiety > sedation > anesthesia or coma - Synergistic effect - Benzodiazepines and barbiturates: Enhance GABA - Alcohol: Can result in Kosakoff’s syndrome (causes anterograde amnesia (memory loss for anything new); this syndrome is caused by long-term drinking and malnutrition, more specifically a thiamine deficiency) |
|
|
Stimulants
|
- Increase motor activity and decrease fatigue
- Amphetamines speed up the central nervous and causes symptoms that mimic sympathetic arousal - Antidepressants: Elevate mood, increase activity level, and improve appetite and sleep patterns 1. Tricyclic: Facilitate the transmission of serotonin and NE in the synapse 2. MAOI: Inhibit MAO, an enzyme that breaks down serotonin and NE in the synapse 3. Methylphenidate (Ritalin): Treats ADD by increasing attention and decreasing motor activity |
|
|
Antipsychotics
|
Block dopamine receptors to treat the positive symptoms of schizophrenia; examples include thorazine, chlorpromazine, phenothiazine, and haloperidol; lithium carbonate is used to treat bipolar by controlling mood swings and other manic symptoms
|
|
|
Narcotics
|
Pain relievers; examples include morphine, opium, and heroin; bind to opiate receptors in the brain and mimic the effects of endorphins
|
|
|
Endocrine System
|
* The second communication network inside the body (besides the CNS); uses hormones to transmit chemical messages through the bloodstream, this process is slower than the nervous system
* Shares many characteristics with the hypothalamus (four F’s) |
|
|
Pituitary gland
|
“Master gland” of the endocrine system; divided into two parts: the anterior and the posterior; the anterior portion is the one that actually releases the hormones
|
|
|
Hormones
|
also regulate development of primary (present at birth) and secondary (appears during puberty) sex characteristics; the most important hormone for male development is androgen (most important one: testosterone), development of which is initiated by the Y chromosome; if androgen cannot be produced, development will follow the female pattern, this is called androgen-insensitivity syndrome; development of a female fetus does not need hormones, just a lack of androgen
|
|
|
Gonadoptropic hormones
|
Produced during puberty and cause the production of hormones by the testes and ovaries; these hormones initiate sperm production, secondary sex characteristics, development of female genitalia, and have a role in menstruation
|
|
|
follicle stimulating hormone
|
(FSH) creates a protective sphere that surrounds the egg; luteinizing hormone is associated with ovulation; estrogen is associated with the maturation and release of the egg; progesterone prepares the uterus for implantation of the fertilized egg
|
|
|
Neurophysiology
|
The study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain
Studies through lesions in areas of the brain; disadvantage to this is that it is difficult to create lesions in only one specific area; experimenting with animals helps with this problem |
|
|
Extirpation
|
Surgically induced brain lesion; an electrode is placed in a specific region of the brain and then intense heat, cold, or electricity is applied
|
|
|
Stereotaxic instrument
|
Map of the brain used to locate specific regions
|
|
|
Penfield
|
Another research method involves electrically stimulating certain areas of the brain; this
method was first used by Penfield; the electricity causes the neurons to fire, and thus the corresponding behavior |
|
|
Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF):
|
Noninvansive procedure that measures neural activity by measuring increased blood flow in certain areas of the brain
|
|
|
Agnosia
|
Impairment of perception; person can see an object, but they cannot identify what it is; this is possible since perception and recognition occur in two different areas
|
|
|
Apraxia
|
Impairment of motor functions; inability to execute a simple movement upon command; the result isn’t paralysis, but rather a very disorganized series of movements
|
|
|
Dementia
|
Loss of intellectual functioning
|
|
|
Reticular formation
|
Structure located in the brain stem that keeps the cortex awake and alert
|
|
|
Circadian rhythm
|
Cycle of sleeping and waking that approximates a 24-hour cycle; guided somewhat by external cues (light/dark)
|
|
|
Alpha waves
|
Appear when we are awake, but in a state of rest; more synchronized than beta
|
|
|
Beta waves
|
Appear when we are awake and alert, or concentrating on a task; occur when neurons are firing randomly; rapid pace
|
|
|
Sleep Stages
|
Stage 1: Appearance of sleep spindles (short bursts of alpha waves)
- Stage 2: Theta waves and K complexes appear - Stage 3: Delta waves appear - Stage 4: Deepest stage of sleep, delta waves are at their lowest frequency and sleep spindles are at their steepest - REM Stage: Brain waves similar to beta waves appear; eyes rapidly moving but the rest of the body is paralyzed; dream stage |
|
|
Sleep Disorders
|
Most occur during non-REM sleep
- REM rebound: When people are deprived of REM sleep, they spend alot more time in this stage than normal - Sleep apnea: Inability to breathe while asleep, people with this disorder will wake up often in the night gasping for air, often they will have no recollection of this happening |
|
|
James-Lange Theory
|
We become aware of our emotions after we notice our physiological reactions to some external event; behavior comes before the emotion (we are sad because we cry, not the other way around)
|
|
|
Cannon-Bard Theory
|
Emotions reflect our physiological arousal and our cognitive experience of emotion; emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously; believed that different neural circuits are activated to correspond with different emotions
|
|
|
Singer-Schacter Theory
|
(two-factor theory): Subjective experience of emotion is based on the changes in physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal; all states of arousal are pretty much the same, it is the nature of the situation that determines what emotion the arousal will be labeled with
|
|
|
Absolute threshold
|
Minimum amount of stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system
|
|
|
Difference threshold
|
How different two stimuli must be before they are perceived as different
- A comparison stimulus is compared to a standard stimulus - Just noticeable difference (Weber): Measures the same thing as difference threshold, just with different units (jnds); 1 jnd is needed for a person to notice the difference between two stimuli |
|
|
Weber’s law
|
The change in stimulus intensity needed to produce a just noticeable difference - states that the ratio of the increment threshold to the background intensity is a constant.
|
|
|
Fechner’s Law
|
Expresses the relationship between the intensity of the sensation and the intensity of the stimulus
|
|
|
Signal detection theory
|
Suggests that other, nonsensory factors what the subject says he experiences (such as motives and expectations)
|
|
|
Response bias
|
Responding for reasons other than sensory factors
|
|
|
Sensory Information Processing Steps
|
1. Reception: Each sensory system has receptors that react to external energy
2. Transduction: Transfer of physical energy into neural impulses 3. Projection areas: Destination of neural impulses; parts of the brain that analyze sensory input |
|
|
Cornea
|
Clear dome-like window in the front of your eye that focuses light
|
|
|
Iris
|
Colored part of the eye which contains muscles that move the pupil
|
|
|
Lens
|
Lies behind the iris; controls curvature of incoming light; can focus near and distant objects
|
|
|
Retina
|
Image-detecting part of the eye
|
|
|
Cones
|
Detect color and fine detail; most effective in bright light
|
|
|
Rods
|
Allow perception of achromatic colors; low sensitivity, most effective at night
|
|
|
Fovea
|
Middle section of the retina which only contains cones
|
