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105 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Characteristic of groups
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3 or more people that have interaction, are interdependent and influence each other, help tend to be similar
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Examples of groups
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members of a fraternity / sorority, sports teams, family NOT: a group of people within the same elevator, fans watching a redskins game, students at the library
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Individuals are more likely to behave in an _______ manner when part of a large anonymous group (group can become a mob)
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aggressive manner
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Individuals feel less _______ in a group, so constraints that prevent ______ behavior may be lost. The shared responsibility for action reduces individual guilt.
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Individuals feel less identifiable in a group so constraints that prevent aggressive behavior may be lost.
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Deindividuation
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The loosening of normal constraints on behavior when in a crowd, leading to an increase in impulsive and deviant acts
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An example of deindividuation
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people at Mardi Gras wearing masks and disguises so they don't stick out as much and can act in ways they wouldn't otherwise
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Factors affecting deindividuation (there are 3)
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group size (larger the group, the more deindividuated people become), and anonymity (the more anonymous people are, the more deindividuated they become), distraction (people in a highly stimulating environment aka club or concert are more uninhibited than people in a more sterile environment)
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People transgress more in ______
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groups
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Social roles
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shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave
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Social facilitation
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The tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated (the Triplett study found bicycle riders rode faster against others than against the clock)
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The presence of others DOES OR DOES NOT help performance?
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The presence of others does not necessarily help performance
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Zajonc Solution
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1. The presence of others creates arousal 2. Increased arousal enhances the dominant response 3. For easy tasks, the dominant response is usually correct but for difficult tasks, the dominant response is usually incorrect (do worse on the task).....thus, whether others help or hinder performance depends on TASK DIFFICULTY.
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Why does being around others lead to arousal? (3 theories)
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1. Mere presence caused us to be slightly aroused, 2. Evaluation apprehension (belief others are evaluating us) 3. Distraction (the presence of others causes arousal when others distract us and create attentional conflict)
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Social loafing
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The tendency for people to do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks when in the presence of others and their individual performance is not evaluated. (Lennon McCartney study: sole authored songs performed better than jointly authored songs)
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The yelling and clapping study by Latane, Williams and Harkins found
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that there was less individual effort when in groups, even in "groups" when no one was present (people were in a room alone but thought they were part of a group)
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Subjects often reduce their individual effort in a task when they think that ______
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they are working with others as a team instead of alone.
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Cognitive Effort Model
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Individuals will exert effort on a collective task to the degree that they think their efforts will be important, relevant and meaningful toward the achieving the outcome.
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The common belief of polarization
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A benefit of groups is that everyone hears different opinions which should lead to compromises
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Risky Shift
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A groups decision was actually riskier than the individuals decision (during a chess problem)
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Group polarization
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The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members
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Social comparison influences ______
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Social comparison influences polarization
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Social comparison
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Wanting to be liked, to have others support your position, voice opinion more strongly.
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Polarization works best when
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Group members all generally agree at first (either risky or cautious)
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Groupthink
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A kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner
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An example of Groupthink
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The Titanic
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Groupthink will occur when
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the group is highly cohesive, they like each other, they feel valued
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The more cohesive a group is, the more its members are likely to
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stay in the group, take part in group activities, and try to recruit new like-minded members
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Groupthink will occur / start when
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the group is isolated, there is a directive, controlling leader, the group is under stress, no standard procedures to make the decisions
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Mindguards
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protect leader from contrary viewpoints
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Self-censorship
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Withhold opposing views for group harmony
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Illusion of Unanimity
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From the pressure to conform to a group. Illusion of Unanimity is when we believe it is unanimous that everyone agrees every though they might disagree in their mind)
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How to prevent groupthink
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Do not endorse any position to begin with, seek anonymous opinions, encourage critical evaluations
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Escalation Effect
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The condition in which commitments of a failing course of action are increased to justify investments already made. Can be very costly to a group.
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Social dilemma
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The conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by everyone, harm everyone
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Examples of the social dilemma
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The Prisoners Dilema (have to choose between two options without knowing what the other person will choose)
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"Tit for tat"
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A means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did in the previous trial.
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Conformity
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A change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people
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Chameleon Effect
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Unconsciously mimicking or adapting to the behaviors, mannerisms and actions of other people
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Informational influence
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Conforming because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more accurate than ours and will help us later choose how to act when we encounter the situation
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Normative Influence
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The influence of other people that leads us to conform to be liked or accepted
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Informational influence occurs when....
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the most important factor is conformity, the situation is a crisis and other people are experts
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Two types of acceptance
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Private and public accpetance
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Private acceptance
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Conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right.
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Public acceptance
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Conforming publicly without necessarily believing in what we are doing or saying (college males drinking or going to a rally / concert because everyone else is)
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Conformity drops as
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the consequence increases in size (if something is more important, they are less likely to conform to others beliefs and instead stick to their own)
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People do not conform as frequently when there are these factors involved:
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feel that the public response matters, they have a prior commitment, culture (collectivist cultures conform more)
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Minority Influence
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A minority of group members influence the behavior or beliefs of the majority
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Idiosyncrasy Credits
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If enough idiosyncrasy credits are earned / there was past conformity, the person can occasionally deviate from the group without getting in too much trouble.
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Nonconformity includes
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independence (resisting influence) and anticonformity (rebelling against influence)
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Descriptive Norms
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Perceptions of how others are behaving / what is typical (young adults overestimate risky health beahviors)
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Injunctive norms
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Perceptions of approval or disapproval of behaviors (depend on exposure and experiences), perception of norms can predict behavior
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People conform for two main reasons
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Accuracy and acceptance
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Conformity isn't inherently good or bad but it can lead to _____ ______.
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Conformity can lead to negative outcomes
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Obedience
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A change in behavior due to the commands of authority
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Factors that affect obedience: the authority
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the authority (closer in proximity = more obedience), legitimacy (authority figure and the institution are perceived as legitimate = more obedience)
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Factors that affect obedience: the victim
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Physical proximity matters, the farther away the victim is = more obedience to carry through with the act (shock study)
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Factors that affect obedience: the procedure
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Gradual escalation of shocks, diffusion of responsibility (participant = bystander)
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ABC's of stereotypes
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Prejudice = affect, attitudes. Discrimination = behavior. Stereotypes = cognitive beliefs, often co-occur but NOT always.
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Prejudice
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A hostile / negative attitude toward a distinguishable group of people based solely on their membership in that group .
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What contributes to prejudice? (8 things)
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Evolutionary psychology, competition, realistic conflict theory, relative deprivation, scapegoating, institutionalized prejudice, normative conformity, motivational needs
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Evolutionary psychology
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(prejudice may be the result of a tendency to favor genetically similar individuals)
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Realistic Conflict Theory
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Limited resources lead to conflict between groups and result in prejudice / discrimination
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Relative Deprivation
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Feelings of discontent aroused by the belief that one fares poorly compared to others
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Scapegoating
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Tendency for people to displace aggression onto disliked, visible, and relatively powerless groups when they are frustrated or unhappy.
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Institutionalized Prejudice
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Prejudicial attitudes that are held by the majority of people living in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm
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Normative conformity
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People adopt prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior to go along with the group and gain acceptance
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Need for Control: Just-World / Blaming the Victim theory
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The tendency to believe that the world is just, so people get what they deserve and deserve what they get. People don't want to think their fate is dependent on chance factors.
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Stereotypes
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A generalization about a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of a group (regardless of actual differences between people)
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How are stereotypes learned?
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Social learning, prejudice
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The main problem with stereotypes is ______
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overgeneralization. It is not necessarily accurate for all people in that group and denies people their individuality
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Automatic Process
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Is one over which we have no control
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Social categorization
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Tendency to mentally sort things and people into groups
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Social Identity Theory
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We categorize ourselves and others into groups
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In-groups
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We sort the world into groups that we belong to
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Out-Groups
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Groups we do not belong to
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In-Group Bias
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Positive feeling and special treatment for people we have defined as being part of our in-group and negative feelings/unfair treatment for those we consider part of the out-group
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Social Cognition
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Consistent information regarding a stereotype is processed more quickly and remembered better. People seek information that confirms their stereotypes (confirmation bias)
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Ultimate Attribution Error
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Make dispositional attributions about the entire group
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Stereotype Consistent Behavior
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Dispositional attribution
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Stereotype Inconsistent Behavior
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Situational attribution
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Positive Behavior
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Dispositional for in-group, situational for out-group
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Negative Behavior
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Situational for in-group, dispositional for out-group
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Illusory Correlation
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Tendency to see relationships / correlations between events that are actually unrelated, most likely to occur when the events or people are distinctive (mentally ill assassins, Muslim terrorists)
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When job applicant was black, interviewers...
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sat further away, ended interview sooner, made 50% more speech errors
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Interviewees who were treated like black applicants were
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more nervous, less effective performance, perceived interviewer as less adequate and friendly
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2 step process of stereoytping:
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1. Automatic activation of stereotypes (unconscious process that we cannot control) 2. Controlled processes (conscious, effortful process, we choose to disregard or ignore the automatically activated stereotype)
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Discrimination
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An unjustified, negative, or harmful action toward the members of a group simply because of their membership in that group.
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Impacts of discrimination
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internalizing symptoms (depression, anxiety), externalizing behaviors (anger, violence), physical health problems, academic problems,
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Racial Identity
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The significance and qualitative meaning that individuals attribute to their racial or ethnic group, they perceive their group positively.
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Racial Socialization
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The process of communication behaviors and messages to children for the purpose of enhancing their sense of racial / ethnic
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Purpose of racial socialization
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To prepare for racially hostile encounters, helps protect against substance use, low self-esteem, low academic achievement
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Contact Hypothesis
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Groups need to interact or have repeated contact but it does not guarantee they will like each other.
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6 conditions for contact to reduce prejudice
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they must mutually depend on each other, have a common goal, equal status, friendly / informal setting, multiple interactions with multiple different members, social norms promote equality
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Subordinate goal
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Unite different groups and require cooperative effort
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The hostility that occurred in the Robber's Cave was not reduced until
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both groups had to work together to overcome a shared obstacle, eliminating the competition was not enough
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Stereotype threats: A fear of confirming a negative stereotype about one's own group
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Stereotype is made visible, fear of confirming the stereotype, performance decreases
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Self-affirmation techniques
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Students reflect on other values in life; enhance self-worth
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Social impact theory
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The idea that conforming to social influence depends on the strength of the group's importance, its immediacy and the number of people in the group
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Process loss
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Any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving. Examples: groups might not try hard enough to find out who the most competent member is and instead rely on someone who really doesn't know what they are talking about.
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Great person theory
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The idea that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation.
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task-oriented leader
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A leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with workers feelings and relationships.
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relationship-oriented leader
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A leader who is concerned primarily with workers feelings and relationships.
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public good dilemma
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A social dilemma in which individuals must contribute to a common pool in order to maintain the public good. Examples: pay taxes for public schools
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justification-suppression
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Most people struggle between their urge to express prejudice and their need to maintain a positive self-concept (not a bigot). Requires a lot of energy to suppress prejudiced impulses
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modern racism
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outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes
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