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80 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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independent view of the self
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a way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people
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interdependent view of the self
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a way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people, recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others
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introspection
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the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives
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self-awareness theory
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the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values
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causal theories
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theories about the causes of one's own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture
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reasons-generated attitude change
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attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one's attitudes; people assume that their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalize
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self-perception
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the theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs
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intrinsic motivation
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the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting. not because of external rewards or pressures
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extrinsic motivation
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the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting
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over-justification of effort
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the tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons
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task-contingent rewards
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rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done
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performance-contingent rewards
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rewards that are based on how well we perform a task
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two-factor theory of emotion
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the idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it
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misattribution of arousal
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the process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
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fixed mindset
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the idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change
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growth mindset
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the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow
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social comparison theory
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the idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
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upward social comparison
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comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are with regard to a particular trait or ability
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downward social comparison
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comparing ourselves to people who are worse that we are with regard to a particular trait or ability
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social tuning
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the process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes
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impression management
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the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen
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ingratiation
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the process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status
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self-handicapping
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the strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves
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self-esteem
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people's evaluations of their own self-worth; that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent
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terror management theory
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the theory that holds that self-esteem serves as a buffer, protecting people from terrifying thoughts about their own mortality
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narcissism
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the combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy toward others
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conformity
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a change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people
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informational social influence
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the influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior; we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action
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private acceptance
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conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right
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public compliance
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conforming to other people's behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying
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contagion
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the rapid spread of emotions or behaviors through a crowd
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mass psychogenic illness
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the occurrence in a group of people of similar physical symptoms with no known physical cause
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social norms
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the implicit or explicit rules a group has for the acceptable behaviors, values, and beliefs of its members
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normative social influence
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the influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them; this type of conformity results in public compliance with the group's beliefs and behaviors but not necessarily in private acceptance of those beliefs and behaviors
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social impact theory
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the idea that conforming to social influence depends on the group's importance, its immediacy, and the number of people in the group
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idiosyncrasy credits
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the tolerance a person earns, over time, by conforming to group norms; if enough idiosyncrasy credits are earned, the person can, on occasion, behave deviantly without retribution from the group
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minority influence
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the case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority
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injunctive norms
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people's perceptions of what behaviors are approved or disapproved of by others
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descriptive norms
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people's perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others
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integrative solution
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a solution to a conflict whereby the parties make trade-offs on issues according to their different interests; each side concedes the most on issues that are unimportant to it but important to the other side
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negotiation
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a form of communication between opposing sides in a conflict in which offers and counteroffers are made and a solution occurs only when both parties agree
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***-for-tat strategy
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a means of encouraging cooperation by at first acting cooperatively but then always responding the way your opponent did (cooperatively or competitively) on the previous trial
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social dilemma
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a conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects for everyone
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contingency theory of leadership
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the idea that leadership effectiveness depends both on task-oriented or relationship-oriented the leader is and on the amount of control and influence the leader has the group
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task-oriented leader
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a leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with workers' feelings and relationships
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relationship-oriented leader
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a leader who is concerned more with workers' feelings and relationships
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group polarization
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the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members
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great person theory
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the idea that certain key personality traits make a person a good leader, regardless of the situation
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transactional leaders
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leaders who set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them
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transformational leaders
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leaders who inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals
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transactive memory
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the combined memory of two people that is more efficient than the memory of either individual
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groupthink
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a kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner
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process loss
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any aspect of group interaction that inhibits good problem solving
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deindividuation
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the loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people can't be identified (such as when they are in a crowd)
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social loafing
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the tendency for people to relax when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated, such that they do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks
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social facilitation
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the tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated
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group cohesiveness
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qualities of a group that bind members together and promote liking between members
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social roles
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shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave
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group
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three or more people who interact are are interdependent in the sense that their needs and goals cause them to influence each other
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subliminal messages
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words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgments, attitudes, and behaviors
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attitude accessibility
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the strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object
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theory of planned behavior
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the idea that people's intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determined by their attitudes toward specific behaviors, their subjective norms, and thei
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reactance theory
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the idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior
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attitude inoculation
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making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position
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heuristic-systematic model of persuasion
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an explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change, either systematically processing the merits of the arguments or using mental shortcuts (heuristics), such as "experts are always right"
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fear-arousing communication
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persuasive message that attempts to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears
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need for cognition
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a personality variable reflecting the extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities
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elaboration likelihood model
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a model explaining two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: centrally, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and peripherally, when people do not pay attention to the arguments but are instead swayed by surface characteristics
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central route to persuasion
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the case in which people elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments, which occurs when people have both the ability and the motivation to listen carefully to a communication
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peripheral route to persuasion
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the case in which people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues
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persuasive communication
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communication advocating a particular side of an issue
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Yale attitude change approach
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the study of the conditions under which people are most likely to change their attitudes in response to persuasive messages, focusing on the source of the communication, the nature of the communication, and the nature of the audience
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behaviorally based attitude
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an attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object
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explicit attitudes
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attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report
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implicit attitudes
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attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious
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classical conditioning
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the phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus
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operant conditioning
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the phenomenon whereby behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward (positive reinforcement) or punishment
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attitudes
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evaluations of people, objects, and ideas
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cognitively based attitudes
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an attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object
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affectively based attitude
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an attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object
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