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531 Cards in this Set

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bourgeoisie
people who own the means of production in industrial society
conflict perspective
a view that society is composed of groups with clashing interests who engage in a struggle over control of valuable social resources
funtionalist perspecitive
a view that society is a relatively stable and orderly system composed of interdependent and interrelated parts
industrialization
the process by which societies are transformed from agricultural based economic activity to manufaturing based economic activity
latent function
the largely unintended and unrecognized consequences of an activity or social institution
macro-level
a focus on the social institutions and large scale social processes that shape society as a whole
manifest function
the intended expected or overtly recognized consequences of an activity or social institution
micro level
a focus on the dynamics and meanings of face to face interactions between people and small groups
proletariat
people who won only their labor power,which they sell to the bourgeoisie to earn a living
social dysfunction
the undsirable consequences of an institution or activity for the social system
social facts
patterned ways of behaving thinking and feeling beyond the individual
social structure
the stable organized patterns of social relationships and social institutions that exist within a particular group or society
society
a large social grouping of people who occupty and interact together in the same geographic area; are organized by and subject to a sommon political authority and dominant cultural expectations; and whose members share a sense of identity loyalty and purpose
sociology
the systematic study of human society and social interaction
sociological perspective
the ability to see the general in the particular
symbolic interaction perspective
a view that society as the ongoing product of the evryday interactions and shared meanings of people and groups
theory
a set of logically interrelated statements that attempts to explain describe and occasionally predict how two or more social phenomena are related
theoretical perspecitve
a basic overall image or paradigm used to organize a way of understanding society
urbanization
the process by which an increasing propotion of a society's population lives in citi8es instead of rural areas
Auguste Comte
coined the term sociology and believed that the application of the scientific method to the study of industrial society would lead to its improvement
C. Wright Mills
identified the term sociological imagination to describe the link between an indibidual's experiences and the society in which the individaul lives
Charles Horton Cooley
symbolic interactionist who identified the concept of looking glass self in which one's sense of self is based on the imagined reactions of others
Emile durkheim
conducted well known studies on social facts using suicide pattern statistics
Erving Goffman
symbolic interactionist who used dramaturgical analysis to explain social roles
George Herbert Mead
Symbolic interationist who explored teh social influences on the development of a sense of self
Karl Marxx
founded the conflict persepctive by dividing society into the bourgeoisie and proletariat
Robert Merton
funtionalist who discerned between manifest and latent functions.
What is sociology? what is the sociological perspective?
Sociology is the systematic study of human society and social interaction. The sociological perspective holds that the behavior of individuals is shaped influenced and constrained by the larger social context in which it occurs. the sociological perspective sees the general (the individual)
What are social facts?what two social facts that reflected sustantive changes in the way societies were organized contributed to the development of sociology as a discipline in the social sciences
Social facts are patterned ways of behaving thinking and feeling. social facts are generated at the individual level by behavioral and attitudinal choices. when thses choices are aggregated they can be observed at the societal level as social facts. the two main social facts that influenced the development of the field of sociology were industrialization was accompanied by and encouraged urbanization the movement of an increasing proportion of a society's population to or near cities. these changes stimulated the development of sociolgical thinking.
how did Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim contribute to the development of the field of sociology
Comte is crdited with first coining the term sociology. He beliebed that by applying the scientific method to the study of society, improvements could e made in social life. Durkheim produced one of the first studies that attempted to apply the scientific method to the study of society and social relationships. His examination of suicide was seminal illustration of how rapid socail change and the variance in the degree of intergration among different groups, such as men and women, significantly influenced behavioral choices.
Compare and contast the functionlist and conflict perspectives
The conflict and functionalist perspectives are macro level perspectives. Teh functionalist perspective empasizes social stability, social cohesion, and the survival of a society. It also seeks to understand how social phenomena contribute to stablity, cohesion, and surbibal. Functionalist view society as a relatively stable and orderly system composed of interdependent and interrelated parts. Each part is thougt to serve a funtion that contrbiutes to the smooth and continued operation of society. Society is characterized by widespread agreement on balues, beliefs, and expectaions for behavior. Rapid social change is viewed as a strain on the social system. Not surprisingly, the conflict perspective emphasizes the role of social conflict in society. This perspective sees society as composed of different hgroups that have clashing self interests and are in competition with each other for scarce social rewards, such as high paying jobs ad social resources,and it uses this power and control to shape society to its advantage. conflict is viewed as positive because ita can lead to the betterement of society.
what is the differnence between manifest and latent functions? Provide examples
Manifest functions are the intended expected or overtly recognized consequences of an activity or institution. Latent functions are the largely unrecognized or unintended consequences of an activity or institiution.For expample the manifest funtion of attending college is to obtain skills and knowledge to better prepare one for success in the working world. Ltent functions of attending college include gaining independence from one's parents. developing a network of contacts and friendships and identifying potential marriage partners.
What is the difference between micro level and macro level orientations
macro level perspectives such as the funtionalist and conflict perspectives examine large scale social processes and institutions that shape society as a whole. the experiences of individuals are of little interest except as representatives of particular recognized social groups such as gender groups and racial groups. in contrast a micro level orientation such as that found in the symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on the shaping of the self and what people do together. in particular imcro level orientations focus on the dynamics meanings and interpretations of face to face interactions of people and small groups.
Describe the symbolic interactionist perspective. how does it differ from the other persepectives in sociolgy
the symbolic interactionsit perspective holds that society is continuously produced through the everyday interactions of people and groups. this perspective empasizes the manner in which individuals create subjective meanings and interpretations of soical life and how these meanings and interpretations affects social interaction. the symbolic interactionsit perspective differs from the functionalist and conflict perspectives in substantive ways. while the functionalist and conflict perspectives employ a macro level view and examine social institutions and large scale social processes that shape society as a whole, the symbolic interationsit perspective employs a micro level orientation. such an orientation focuses on the nature and meanings of face to face interactions between people and small groups. another difference between symbolic interationsim and the two macro level perspectives is that symbolic interactionism finds the perceptions and meanings of everdya interaction have a greater analytical interest than objective conditions and relations.
cause and effect.
a relationship between two or more variables in which one variable influences or explains the change in the other variable
correlation
when two or more variables change value togetrher in the same or opposite directions
correlation of zero
an independent relationship between two or more variables
deductive model
model of sociological research that vegins with a general theory or set of hypotheses and then moves on to the collection of appropriate data to test the theory or hypotheses.
dependent variable
a variable whose value is believed to depend upon or to be caused by another variable.
experiments
carefully designed and controlled attempts usually conducted in a laboratory to determine the effect of specific variables on a particualr dependent variable or on the behavior or attitudes of the experiments subjects
field research
the study of social life in its natural setting
hypothesis
a statement of teh expected relationship between two or more variables
independent variable
a variable that causes or produces change in the value of another (dependent) variable.
inductive (grounded) model
model of sociological research that begins with specific observations upon which a theoretical account is then fashioned that accounts for and explains the obervations and their meanings.
negative correlation
a relationship between two varibales such that in the majority of cases when one variable increases in value the other decreases in value
operationalize
to specify how te variable is to be measured.
participant observation
a research method in which the researcher systematically observes people while actually joining with them in teir activities
perfect postive correlation
a relationship between two variables such that they both change together and in the same direction in all cases
population
the group of people to whom the results of research are applicable
postive correlation
a relationship between two variables such that they both change together in the same direction in the majority of cases
qualitiative research
research that empasizes the uncovering of subjective meanings and ways people interact in everyday life through the use of descriptive rather than numerical data
quantitative research
research that emphasizes the statistical analysis of numerical data
random sampling
process by which each member of a population of interest has the same chance of being selected for participation in the study
reliability
consistency in the measurement of a variable over time; the quality of measurement of teh variable that suggests that the same results and data would be collected in repeated observations
representative sample
a subgroup of the population that accurately reflects the compostion of the population as well as the distribution of important characterstics and attributes within the population
sample
a subgroup of the population from which the researcher will collect data
secondary analysis of existing data
the use of data initially collected by other researchers to analyze a topic of interest
validity
the extent to which a variable actually measures what it is intended to measure
what is the difference between quantitative and qualitative research?What are examples of each kind of research
the primary difference between quantitative and qualitative research is type of data analyzed. quantitative research collects and objectively analyzes data that can be represented numerically. Survey research typically yields information that can be represented and analyzed quantitatively. Qualitative research emphasizes the uncovering of subjective meanings and ways people interact in everyday life through the use of descriptive data. participant observation is a form of field research through which the researcher participates in the routine activites of group members in an attempt to understand the nature of their interactions and the meanings that they create and atach to those interactions. case studies involve the study of people in their natural settings
what is a variable? what is the difference between an independent and a dependent variable
a variable is a concept whose value changes from case to case. heigh is an example of a variable. this cariable changes in value from person to person. dependent variables, also called variables of interest, are variables whose values depend upon or are believed to be caused by another variable. experiments seek to determine what causes those changes. independent variables, also called explanatory variables, are variables that cause or produce change in the value of a dependent variable.
what is the relationship between a sample and a population
a population is the group of people to whom the results of specified research are applicable. examples of populations include women, college students. and retired people. because populations tend to be very large, researchers use samples. a sample is a subgroup of the population from which the researcher will collect data. a representative sample is a subgroup of the population that accurately refelcts the composition of the population the distribution of aggregate attributes and the characteristivcs that are important for teh study. when a sample is representative of a larger population, the research results derived from the sample can be applied or generalized to the entire population
describe the main steps in the deductive model of socilogical research
there are four main steps in the deductive model of sociological research. the first step involves selecting a topic of interest, reviewing previous research that is pertinent to the topic, and developing a specific statement or hypothesis that one is going to investigate. the second step involves selecting the most appropriate research method and determining the most appropriate population and sample to use in the research question (s) or hypotheses. the third step consists of collecting data through the appropriate method and recording and analyzing the data. the fourht and final step consists of drawing conclusions from the research and sharing these results with others.
describe the main methods used to conduct sociolgical research
there are four main methods of sociolgical reseacrh method. this involves the study of social life in its natural setting. there are also two quantitative research methods. experiments are carefully designed controlled environments in which the researcher seeks to study the effect of specific bariables on the behavior or attitudes of the experriments; subjects. survery researh variables on the behavor or attitudes of the experiments subjects. survey research uses questionnaires or interviews to collect information from people that can then be statistically analyzed. finally the secondary analysis of existing data involves the use of research previously done by others to try and formulate answers to one;s stated research question(s). secondary analysis of data can be used for both qualitative and quantitative research.
counterculture
groups that reject the norms and values of dominant culture and have a distinctive way of life that is in conflict with dominant culture's norms and values
culture
the values ideas beliefs behaviors language and material objects that form a people's distinctive way of life and are transmitted from one generation to the next
cultural relativism
the evaluation of the practices and customs of a culture by that culture's own standards
culture shock
the disorientation people feel when they are exposed to a way of life that is very different from their own.
cultural universals
those customs traits and behaviors that occur in every known culture
ethnocentrism
the practice of evaluating other cultures by the values and standards of one's own culture
folkways
norms and customs of lesser moral significance that guide evreyday interaction and which may be violated without serious consequences
high culture
cultural patterns that distinguish a society's elite from the other classes in a society
ideal culture
the values a culture professes to be very important
incest taboo
a cultural universal that forbids sexual relations or marriage between certain relatives
language
a set of symbols that allows people to think and communicate with each other
laws
fromal norms created by a society;s governmetn that are punishable by official sanctions when violated
material culture
the tangible objects that members of a society use share and create
mores
norms of considerable moral significance that carry serious consequences if violated
nonmaterial culture
the intagible parts of a society such as ideas values beliefs norms and language that shape a people behaviors
norms
specific rules that specify how somone is expected to act ina certain situation
popular culture
cultural patterns that are widespread within the middle and working classes of a society
real culture
the actual values embodied in the everyday behavior or members of a specific culture.
sapir-whorf hypothesis
states that language shapes the specific way people understand view and interpet reality
subculture
a group of people that posses some cultural patter(s) that distinguishes it from the larger society
symbol
anything that carries a specific meaning recognized and understood by people in the same culture, including sounds, gestures, and written representations
values
general evaluative standards by which members of a specific culture determine what is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable, and good or bad
how does culture contribute to the survival of a society
culture contributes to the survival of a society in many ways. group rules and laws provide the basis for social order and civilized behavior. shared symbols allow people to communicate with one another and enable the transmission of culture from one generation to the next. cultrual values, norms and beliefs provide people with acceptable goals to pursue and the proper behaviors to engage in to achieve those goals. the material components of culture provide the things people need to servive such as transportation food and shelter
distinguish between material and nonmaterial culture. provide examples of each.
material culture consists of tangible objects such as automobiles computers and art as well as the technology of a socitey. these are the objects that members of a society use share and create. material culture varies from society to society. nonmaterial culture refers to the intangible parts of a society that shape people's behaviors
how does the use of symbols and language shape how people interpret the world and communicate
people communicate using symbols. the meaning of symbols baries from one society to the next. languge is a system of symbols which can be verbal and nonverbal. the sapir whorf hypothesis states that people can only interpret understand and interact with the world around them in terms of the language they use
what are values?what are the core values of people in the united state? waht is a value conflict? provide an example from the core values of the United States?
values are general diffuse evaluative standards by which a society determines what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable and righ or wrong. values justify norms. the core values of United States include the following:
freedom
progress
individualism
material comfort
achievement and success
science
demorcracy
helath
education
privacy
efficiency and practicality
group superiority
racism
hard work
equality
value conflict exists where ther is a tension or contradidciton between two culturally desirable balues such as the conflict between the american values of equality and group superiority
what are norms?distinguish between folkways, mores, and laws
norms are specific behavioral rules taht indicate how a person is expected to act in a particular situation. folkways are norms of little moral consequences that consist of cutoms for polite behavior. opening the door for others and raising one's hand in class when wanting to be called upon are examples of folkways. mores are norms of important moral significance that carry serious consequences when violated. an example of a more is telling the truth. laws are formal norms that have been enacted by the political authority of a society. violations of laws are punishable by formal sanctions. in the United States these sanctions include fines incarceration or even execution.
what is the difference between ideal cultrue and real culture
ideal culture refers to the values a culture professes to be important, while real culture refers to the actual values emobdied in the day to day behavior of a society's members. For example, the core cultural value of democracy is part of ideal culture in the United States. In reality, the majority of adults choose not to vote
what are subcultures and countercultures? give an example of each. how does heterogeneity contribute to the development of subcultures and countercultures?
subcultures are groups within a society that posses some cultural patterns that distinguish it and set it apart from dominant culture. examples include gangs homosexuals and rastafarians. members of each of these groups behave in specific ways such as stealing to achieve material success or engaging in displays of affection and commited relationships with members of one's own gender, that are in tension with the bvalues and norms of dominant culture. however the other aspects of the lifestyle of subcultural members conform to the expectations of dominant culture. in contrast countercultures reject the values and norms of dominant culture and possess a distinctive way of life that is in extensive conflict with the larger society. the hippies were a counterculture in that they rejected the norms of monogamy and chasity before marriage and teh values of material comfort and prosperity among others. heterogenetiy contributes to the development of subcultures and countercultures in the united states immigration has served to introduce cultural heterogeneity.
what is the difference between popular culture and high culture
popular culture refers to the cultrual patterns that are widespread among a society's working and middle classes while high culture consists of those cultural patterns that distinguish a society's elite from the working and middle classes.
what is teh relationship between ethnocentism and culture shock
ethnocentrism is the tendency to evaluate other cultures by the standards and values of one's own culture. ethnocentrism is based upon the belief that one's culture and way of life is superior to others. when one encounters a new culture the tendency is to evaluate that new culture by the standards of the culture with which one is familiar. this can lead to culture shock the disorientation one feels when exposed to a way of life very different from one's own.
describe the functionalsit, conflict and symbolic interactioist perspectives on culture
the functionalist and conflict perspectives are macro level perspectives, while the symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on the micro level. the functionalist perspective states that culture especially popular culture forms the glue that holds a society together. the shared norms and values of a culture are the basis for social unity group identity and social stability. language enables the passing of these shared norms and values from one generation to the next. the conflict perspective argues that the elite of the society promulgate the dominant norms and values of a society in order to maintain their privileged position. a key way this occurs is through the development of an ideology that justifies the way power and privilege are distributed in a society. the symbolic interactionist persepective focuses on the way culture is created maintained and changed trhough the everyday interactions of people in the society. this view empasizes the way values and norms can be reinterpreted and changed through interaction.
agents of socialization
those groups institutions and people from which we learn the patterns of our culture.
anticipatory socilization
social learning that is directed towards occupying a new position and the expected behaviors of that position
concrete operational stage
Paget age 7-11
the stage of development in which children begin to think in terms of actual events and objects and understand causal relationships
conventional level
Kohlberg 10-18
a level of moral debelopment in which children begin to evaluate behavior in terms of righ and wrong.
differential socialization
the process by which members of teh same society (and even the same family) are raised differently based upon the different roles they are expected to perform as adults.
ego
the conscious reality oriented component of the mind that strives to balance the demands of the id with those of the superego
ethnic (or racial) socialization
those components of socialization that transmit messages concerning the staus of one's ethnic (or racial) group in relation to others while facilitating a sense of identity based upon ethnicity (or race)
formal operational stage
Paget 12-18
a final stage of development in whichchildren learn the ability to think abstractly and critically
game stage
mead age 5
the final stage inthe development of self, during which children become aware of the generalized other and are able to view a situation from the perspecitves of multiple others
gender socialization
that portion of socialization involving partivcular messages about what it means to be male or female in a society
generalized other
the commonly accepted cultural norms and values that we use as a reference in evaluating ourselves
I
the subjective spontaneous and unique element of self.
id
freud
the component of personality that represents a human being's basic biological needs and demands instant gratification
me
the objective element of self, consisting of the internalized attitudes and expectations of the larger social environment
mind
the capacity to understand symbols
peer group
a group of people who share similar ages, interests, and social positions
play stage
the second stage in the development of self during which children learn to use language and other symbols which then enables them to pretend to take the roles of specific others
postconventional level
kohlberg
Adult
few achieve
the final level of moral development, in which behavior is evaluated interms of abstract ethical principles that may transcend rules and laws.
preconventional level
kohlberg
age 7
the stage of moral development in which children give little consideration to the views of others and experience the world in terms of what gives them pain and pleasure
preoperational stage
paget 2 years
the stage of devleopment in which children learn to use symbols and mental images to understand the world around them.
preparatory stage
Meade
birth - 3 years
the first stage in the development of self, during which children largely imitate the world around them.
resocialization
learning a different set of values, norms and attitudes from those we have previously learned
self
that portion of an individual's personality composed of self image and self awarness
sensorimotor stage
Paget
b-2yrs
the stage of development where children can only understand the world around them through their five senses.
socialization
the lifelong process by which individuals learn their culture and develop their human potential
superego
freud
the moral and ethical aspects of personaility shaped by the culture in which the child lives
taking the role of the other
meade
to be able to see one's self as specific other people see one.
total institutions
an environment in which people are isolated from the rest of society and under teh continuous control of the administrative staff.
charles horton cooley
symbolic interactionist who believed in the "I" and "me" components of the self.
george herbert mead
symbolic interactionist who developed the concept of the looking glass self
What is socialization?how is it a process?
Socialization is a lifelong process by which individuals learn the culture of their society and develop their capacities for complex thought and action.
why is socialization important?
socialization is important for many reasons. sustained social interaction with others is necessary to develop our human potential. learning the values and norms of one's culute helps guide an individual's behavior goals beliefs and values in socially approved directions. socialization facilitates the development of self identity and personality
Describe the stages of moral development and how Gilligan's theories and Kohlber's theories differ between genders.
using a sample of just boys, Kohlberg identified three stages of moral development. Moral development begins roughly at age seven. In the preconventional level, children primarily experience the world in terms of what gives them pain or pleasure with little consideration given to the concerns of others. in the conventional level which begins at age ten, children evaluate behavior in terms of right or wrong. with reference to the expectations of others and their culture. not everyone reaches the postconventional stage of moral development. in this stage behavior is evaluated in terms of abstract principles and ethical beliefs that may transcend rules an dlaws. Gilligan extended Kohlberg's analysis to girls. She found that boys and girls have different means of determining right and wrong, due to the fact that they are raised differently. boys have a justice perspective that relies upon rules and laws. Girls have a care and responsibility perspective that judges actions on the basis of personal relationships and loyalty. Boys, for example, are likely to view stealing as wrong because it breaks the law and violates common morality. In contrast, girls are more likely to ponder the motives of why osomeone would steal; they would likely be sympathetic toward a person who stole to buy medicine for a severly ill child.
What are the four main agents of socialization?what role do they play in the socialization process and which has the greatest impact.
there are four main agens of socialization: family, peers, school, and the mass media. families have arguabley the greatest impact on socialization, as they teach children cultrual values, norms and symbols. they also locate children in the social structures of class, religion, and ethnicity. a childs inital self image develops in the family. the influence of peer groups is greatest during adolescence, providing children with a sense of belonging as well as an identity disticnt from their family. schools socialize children to specific skills, knowledge and sultrual values whle enlarging their social worlds beyond their specific groups. The meida exposes people to current events, controversial issues and different cultures and people.
Explain the Freudian view of how personality and self identity develop
FREUD BELIEVED THE MIND WAS COMPOSED OF THREE ELEMENTS THE ID THE EGO AND THE SUPEREGO. the development of self identity and personality is shaped by the interplay of these three elements. the id represents basic biological needs and demand immediate gratification. the superego represents the moral and ethical elements of personality and is composed of internalized understandings of important cultural standards of conduct. essentially it is one's conscience. the ego is the conscious and reality oriented part of the mind. it attempts to balance the id's need for immediate gratification with the superego's need to restrain certain behaviors. the ego channels the id into socially acceptable outlets of expression
what is human cognition?describe Piaget's model of how human cognition develops.
human cognition refers to how people think. piaget believed that the capacity for human cognition undergoes four stages of development, beginning at birth. during the sensorimotor stage, children understand their world only through their five senses. during the preoperational stage, which begins at age wto, children begin to interpret the world around them using symbols and metnal images. the concrete operational stge begins at age seven. in this stage, children think interms of specific events and objects and perveive casual relationships and can look at the world from the viewpoints of ohters. during the formal operational stge which begins at age twelve the ability to think abstractly and critically develops
Distinguish between differential socializtion anticipatory socialization and resocialization
differential socialization is the process whereby different members of a society (and even of the same family) are raised differently based upon the different roles they are expected to occupy as adults. it occurs along gender and ethnic lines. it can also occur by birth order, such that first born children may be raised differently than latter born children. anticipatory socialization involves the learning of new norms values and attitudes. it can occur voluntarily such as by joining the military or involuntrily such as being incarcerated in a prison.
According to mead, how does the sense of self develop
mead believed that the sense of self developed in three stages. children largely imitate the world around them during the preparartory stage. during the play stage (ages 3-5) children learn to use symbols which enables them to take the role of the other to see themselves as specific ohter people see them. this enables children to evaluate themselves more objectively and this ability represents the development of when children enter school children start to view themselves and the world from the perspective of multiple different roles. the child develops a sense of the generalized other in this stage, which is the internalization of commonly accepted cultural norms and values.
how do sociolgical theories of human development differ from psychological theories
sociological theories of human development emphasize the role of sustained social interaction with others in the socilization process. psychological theories thend to emphasize the aspect of development internal to the individual rather than the broader social context in which development occurs.
achieved status
a social position that an individual voluntarily occupies as a result of their effort or choice.
anomie
a condition or situation of normlessness in which society provides little moral and behavioral guidance to individuals
ascribed status
a social position that is acquired at birth or involuntarirly acquired later in life
dramaturgical analysis
the study of evryday social interaction in theatrical terms
ethnomethodology
the study of common sense knowledge that people use to understand and organize their everyday surroundings and events
master status
a status that has exceptional importance in shaping a person's identity; a person's most salient social identity
nonverbal communication
communication iwth others that employs facial expressions body movements and gestures other than speech
presentation of self
the manipulation of one's role performance designed to create a particular impression
role
the set of behavioral and attitudinal expectations that accompany a particular status
role conflict
conflict between the roles associated with two or more statuses
role exit
when someone disengages from an important social role
role expectation
socity's or a group's expectation of the manner in which a role ought to be performed
role performance
how a person actually behaves and acts in a role in contrast to how the role is expected to be played
role set
the different roles that are attached to a specific status
role strain
tension among the roles linked to a single status
self fulfilling prophecy
a false or inaccurate label belief perdiction perception or sterotype that evokes behavior which the makes the originally false belief come true.
social construction of reality
the process by which people's subjective definitions and interpretations of events shape their perception of reality
social interaction
the process by which people act and react toward and with other people
social structure
any relatively stable, recurring pattern of relationships that exists within a society
status
a socially defined position that an individual occupies
status set
all of the statuses a person occupies at a given time
Thomas theorem
the concept that situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences.
Erving Goffman
pioneered method of dramaturgical analysis to explain social interaction in theatrical terms
harold garfinkel
ethnomethodolgist who theorized that social interaction is based on assumptions of shared expectancies
what are achieved and ascribed statuses? how do they differ? Provide an example of each
an achieved status is a social position that one occupies voluntarily as a result of one's effort, talent, or choice. college student is an achieved status. An ascribed status is a social position that is inherited at birth or acquired inboluntarily later in life. Gender and the status of a felon are ascribed statuses. They are both recognized social positions that people occupy though not as a result of personal choices
What is the relationship between social statuses and social roles
a status is az socially recognized position that an individual occupies, while a role is the set of behavioral and attitudinal expectations that someone in that position is expected to exhibit. we occupy a status and perform a role
what is a master status?Is it achieved or ascribed
a master status is a social position that has exceptional importance in shaping a personal identity and self image. it can overshadow the other statuses a person may occupy. a master status can be ascribed such as being a woman or belonging to an ethnic or racial minority. a master status can also be achieved. occupation serves as a master status form any adults.
describe and illustrate the difference between role strain and role conflict
Role strain involves tension between the different roles attached to a single status. for instance in the status of college professor there may be role strain between the roles of colleague and advisor if a coworker asks questions about a confidential conversation between the professor and a student. role conflict involves tension between the roles attached to two or more statuses. for instance, the role attached to the status of employee may conflict with the role attached to the status of mother. if role strain or role conflict becomes too acute, a person may disengage from one of the roles. this is termed role exit.
how do sociologist analyze the congruency or discrepancy between expected and actual behavior
sociologist use the terms role expectation and role performance to analyze whether someone is behaving the way they ought to behave. role expectation refers to society's or a group's expectation of how a role ought to be performed. Role performance is how someone actually plays the role they occupy.
Describe dramtugrical analysis
dramaturgical analysis was developed by Goffman and involves the study of everyday social interaction in theatrical terms. a status is likened to a part in a play, while a role serves as the script one is expected to follow. how one performs a role involves presentation of self, which consists of the manipulation of one's role performance intended to leave a specific impression on the audience. role performance caninvolve verbal as well as nonverbal communication. for example,interviewing for a new job involves an elaborate presentation of self
why do sociologist argue that reality is socially constructed
not evryone performs a role in the same way, and not everyone interprets and defines social interactions in the same way. how we interpret interactions and how we respond in our role performance are influenced by factors such as social class, gender, age and ethnicity. because a person's subjective interpretation of events shapes his or her definition of reality and in turn the way he or she behaves sociologist argue that reality is socially constructed
what is the
Thomas theorem?How does it differ from the self fulfilling prophecy
the Thomas theorem states that situations defined as real are real in their consequences. the self fulfilling prophecy is an initially false or inaccurate belief perception label sterotype or prediction that evokes behavior that makes the originally false belief or prediction come true. the key difference between the two concepts is that the behavior evoked by a self fulfilling prophecy ensures the originally false definition comes true, while the behavior evoked by the Thomas theorem does not necessarily result in the original misdefiniton coming true.
What is ethonomethodology
Ethnomethodolgy is a manner of studying the common sense knowledge that people use to make sense of and organize their everyday social lives. it claims that everyday interactions are structured by assumptions of shared expectancies. to uncover what these assumptions or background expectancies are ethnomethodolgists frequently break the rules of everyday interaction. by breaking the rules ethnomethodologists attempt to draw out the actual meanings assumptions and methods people use to construct their everyday reality.
aggregates
collections of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time
anomie
an absence of moral guidance due to a loss of shared values and a sense of purpose in society.
bureaucracy
an organization characterized by a division of labor, a hierarchical authority an impersonality in administration and explicit written rules.
coercive organizations
groups such as prisons and mental hospitals of which people become members involuntarily
conformity
behavior that complies with the norms of a group of society
dyad
a group composed of two people
expressive leadership
group directed leadership that empahsizes the well being of the group and provides emotional support for its members
formal organizations
large highly stuctured groups organized to achieve specific goals
gemeinschaft
perindustrial societies where social relationships are based upon the primary group ties of friendship kinship and intergenerational stability
gesellschaft
a large urban impersonal society characterized by little consensus on values and by specialized social bonds based upon individual self interest.
goal displacement
the subordination of the stated goals of the organization in favor of continued survival of the organization or the oligarchy that runs the organization.
groupthink
the tendency of group members to conform to a decision that many individual members privately believe is ill advised
in group
a group that commands loyalty and respect typically from its members
insturmental leadership
goal directed leadership that emphasizes the completion of tasks.
iron law of oligarchy
the tendency of large bureaucratic organizations to be run by a small group of people
mechanical solidarity
a characteristic of preindustrial societies marked by a minimal division of labor people united by tradition shared social bonds and shared values
normative organizations
groups that people voluntarily join to pursue a goal cause or value belived to be worthwhile and which does not directly enable their personal material enrichment (also called voluntary organizations or assoications)
organic solidarity
the social bonds characteristic of industrial societies that are based upon specialization and interdependence that occur as the division of labor becomes increasingly extensive
out group
a scorned group towards which one feels opposition competitiveness and even disgust.
primary group
a small group of people who interact frequently with one another and share strong emotional ties
reference group
a group taken as a basis of comparison for making evaluations and decisions aout others and ourselves
secondary group
an impersonal and frequently larger group whose members interact for the purpose of pursuing a shared goal or activity
social group
two or more people engaged in sustained interaction with each other and who identify with one another
social network
a web of ties between people within a society or large group
triad
a group consisting of three people
utilitarian organizations
groups joined voluntarily in pursuit of material rewards that will directly enrich the participant
Amitai Etzioni
identified the three types of formal organizations on the basis of purpose of participation
Emile Durkheim
differentiated between preindustrial and industrial societies by using the terms mechanical and organic solidarity
Ferdinand
Tonnies
used the terms gemeinschaft and gesellschaft to differentiate between social relationship in preindustrial and industrial societies.
Max Weber
identified the fice key components of a bureaucratic organization and believed burequcracy is important fo rcapitalist economonmies
Robert Michels
Weberian student who used the iron law of oligarchy to explain bureaucracy rule by a small group.
Solomon Asch
performed experiments with cards that showed people will conform to behavioral expectations of a group even if the group is wrong.
Stanely Milgram
Performed shock experiments that showed people are willing to inflict harm on others when instructed to do so.
What are the differences between primary and secondary groups
primary and secondary groups can be distinguished based upon the degree of concern and intimacy their members have for one another. primary groups are small groups of people who share strong emotional ties and interact frequently with each other. Primary groups are means-oriented, providing members witha sense of intrinsic satisfaction as a result of interacitng with each other. secondary groups are large and impersonal groups whoe members interact with each other in pursuit of a shared goal or interst. interaction with group members generally revolves around only their shared intersts and pursuits and group members have weaker emotional ties to one another than do primary group members. secondary groups give members a sense of puirposive satisfaction-pleasure derived from making progress toward or achievign their shared goal.
whay are primary groups important for social life
primary groups such as the family and peer groups are the first groups we experience in life. these groups are important in the socialization process-they provide indibiduals with a sense of identity and belonging and transmit important cultural beliefs attitudes goals behaviors and values transmission of these important cultural components provides a basis for unity and cohesion in society.
compare and contrast gesellschaft with gemeinschaft
According to Tonnies, the terms gemeinschaft and gesellschaft refer to the different nature of and basis for social bonds between preindustrial and industrial societies. gemeinschaft describes preindustrial communities in which social bonds are based upon the primary group ties of knship and friendship. gesellschaft refers to industrial socities in which social bonds are more specialized and based upon self interest as these diminish the extent of shared values
how did Durkheim believe that preindustrial and industrial societies differed
Durkheim believed that primary groups and their strong social bonds were characteristic of preindustrial societies. he viewed secondary groups and their correspondingly weaker social bonds as characteristic of industrial societies. he used the term mechanical solidarity to describe the social bonds of preindustrial societies in which face to face intimate relationships with other people produced a strong sense of similarity and likeness based upon shared values and morals and a minimal division of labor. organic solidarity is the term used to describe the social bonds characteristic of industrial societies which have extensive divisions of labor and specialization and a high degree of mutal interdependence between people. he believed the erosion of primary groups in modern society occured as a result of increased social and geographic mobility as well as the increased pace of social change that diminished the importance of tradition resulting in anomie a condition in which society provides little moral or behavioral guidance to indiduals.
what are formal organizations?what are the main types of formal organizations
formal organizations are large, highly structured groups organized to effciengly achieve specific social goals. there are three main types. normative organizaitons or voluntary associations are groups that poeple join by choice in pursuit of a goal cause or value they believe to be worthwhile and whose pursuit does not directly enable their personal material enrichmetn. utilitarian organizations (such as the workplace) are also joined boluntarily but for the pursuit of some direct personal material reward. in contrast coercive organizations such as a prison are formal organizations of which a person involuntarily becomes a member
describe a bureaucracy, its main components and its shortcomings
a bureaucracy is a type of formal organization that is widespread in modern society; Weber believed it was the most appropriate organizational form for capitalist societies. There are five key characteristics of bureaucracies. These include the specialization of tasks; a hierarchy of offices and authority; a system of written rules and regulations that govern the functioning of the organization; the hiring and promotion of workers based upon technical proficiency and not upon personal contacts;p and impersonality. In their ideal form, bureaucracies are designed to quickly, effciently, and perdictably achieve their designated goals. Michels pointed out that the iron law of loigarchy, whereby a small group of people comes to dominate bureaucratic organization. This group migh engage in goal displacement, subordinating the stated goalsof the organization to the goal of the continued survival of the organization or of the incumbent oligarchy.
distinguish between ingroups, out groups and reference groups
an in group is a group that commands loyalty and respect typically from its members. a peer group and the military are examples of in groups. an out group is scorned and ridiculed; it is a group with which one feels a sense of competitiveness, opposition, and disgust. reference groups are groups taken as a frame of reference for making evaluations and decisions about others and ourselves.
what are the two different types of leadership? what three styles of leadership exist
leadership is found in both primary and secondary groups. there are two main types of leadership. expressive leadership is concerned with the well being and emotional support of the group members. instrumental leadership is primarily concerned with the completion of tasks and attainnment of goals. there are three main leadership styles. Laissez-gaire leaders are minimally involved in decision making allowing group members to make decisions largely on their own. In contrast, authoritarian leaders make major decisions themselves and assign task to members. Democratic leaders are expressive leadrs who encourage group deliberation and involvement in decision making. Effective leaders frequently employ each syle and type of leadership depending upon the situation though most leaders have a dominant leadrship type and style.
conventional crime
all violent crime as well as certain types of vice and property crimes; also called street crime`
corporate crime
illegal activities engaged in by a corporation or people acting on its behalf
crime
behavior that violates the formal norms of laws of a society
deviance
any condition behavior attitude or belief that violates cultrual norms or that is reacted to and defined as deviance
deviant
a person who engages in deviance or possesses an attitude or condition considered or labeled deviant
formal social control
involves agents of society such as the police and teh courts in punishing people believed to have broken laws
hate crimes
crimes motivated by racial religious sexual disability or other biases
illegitimate opportunity structures
conditions that provide an opportunity to achieve what they cannot achieve through legitimate means
impulsive deviance
deviance that is engaged in without prior calculation and often lacks duration
informal social control
reactions and sanctions exhibited by people in everyday interactions; their effect is to encourage conformity.
intentional deviance
deviance that involves prior rational calculation of the cost and benefits of doing deviance
organized crime
criminal activity engaged in for profit by an organized group
political crime
unethical or illegal behavior engaged in by government officials or criminal activity engaged in by people attempting to overthrow the government
primary deviance
the first acts of deviance for which one recieves the label of deviant.
punishment
actions taken to extinguish or stop undesirable behavior
secondary deviance
subsequent acts of deviance that result from the acceptance of the lavel and identity of deviant.
social control
collective attempts to ensure conformity to group or societal norms.
stigma
a strong negative label
strain theory
the theory that people engage in deviance when they are unable to achieve socially approved goals through socially approved means
white collar crimes
crime committed by pople of hig social position in the course of their employment activities
cloward and ohlin
functionalists who expanded Merton's theory by saying that people need illegitimate opportunity structures to engage in deviance
emile durkheim
funtionalist who theorzed that deviance serves socially essential functions
robert merton
functionalist who believed that strain theory explains how deviance occurs when individuals are unable to meet socially approved goals through socially approved means.
travis hirschi
symbolic interactionist who developed control theory as a way to help understand what factors constrained people from choosing conformity over deviant behavior
Explain what deviance is and why sociologists argue that deviance is relative. Provide an example
deviance is any behavior condition attitude or belief that violates cultrual norms. sociologist point out that deciance only exists in realtionship to cultrual norms that describe what is socially acceptable and unacceptable. because cultural norms change over time and vary between societies deviance is said to be relative it exists only in comparison to the norms that exist at a given time in a given society. for example marijuana was legal in the united States until 1937.People who used marijuana before then were not considered to be deviants. while pople who use marijuanan today recieve that label.
why do functionalists argue that deviance serves socially useful purposes
the funtionalist perspective argues that though deviance involves a violation of social norms the violation of norms serves four useful purposes. Deviance helps to sustain and define the cultural norms of a society. By responding to deviance society also clarifies the boundaries between right and wrong, good and bad.punishign deviance also reinforces cultural norms and promotes a sense of shared commitment and unity among goupr or socital members. finally, the breaking of rules can promote social change by expanding the moral boundaries of the group or society.
what is strain theory? how does it accoutn for deviance?
developed by Robert Merton, strain theory states that every society has socially approved goals that members are encouraged to strive for through socially approved means. inthe united states the approved goal is material succes and the approved way to achieve it is through education and hard work. Strain is experieenced when the approved goals cannot be achieved through the approvved means. deviance is the result of blocked or rejected means; those labeled deviant do not follow the culturally acceptable norms. the most common form of deviance is what Merton labeled "innovation"; the goals are accepted, but the means to attain them are blocked. people then use illegal or illegititmate means, such as crim, to attain the goal of material success.
how does control theory explain deviance
control theory focuses on the social factors that constrain people from engaging indeviance. people conform to accepted norms-they are constrained from deviance-when their soical bonds arestrong. people with weak social bonds are more likely to be deviant. there are four types of bonds. strong attachemtns to oters encourage conformity; weak attachments enable deviance. strong commitments to legitimate means and accepted norms encourage conformityu; weak commitments enable deviance. a high degree of involvement in conventional activities limits the enable deviance. a high degree of involvment in conventional activities limits the oppotunities to engage in deviance. finally, the stronger a person's beliefs are in the appropriateness of conventional norms. the less likely they are to engage in deviance
distinguish between primary and secondary deviance. what theory are these concepts associated with
the concepts of primary and secondary deviance are associated with laeling theory. this theory views deviance as a socially constructed process. primary deviance is the firs act or acts of deciance that results in someone being labeled or stigmatized as a deviant. secondary deciance is subsequent deciance that is a result of accepting the label and identity of deviant
what is social control? how is it implemented?
social control involves collective attempts to ensure conformity to societal or group norms. control is attempted in tow ways. the most common form of social control is informal soicail control . this form of social control is a byproduct of everyday interactions. gossip stares and reprimands are all forms of informal social control. formal social control involves agents of society, such as the police and the courts in the apprehension and punishmetn of people believed to have broken laws.
Decibe the six basic types of crime and give an example of each.
Crime involves the violation of formal norms called laws. conventional (or street) crime refers to all violent crimes and certain types of vice and property crimes. Murder is a conventioanl crime. white collar crime is the breking of law by people of high social position in the course of their employment. Insider trading is an example of white collar crime. corporate crime refers to illegal activities engaged in by people acting on behalf of a corporation. bid rigging is an example of corporate crime. organized crime is criminal activity engaged in for profit by an organized group such as a gang. international arms smuggling is an organized crime. political crime refers to illegal or unethical activities engaged in by members of the government or by people seeking to overthrow the government. an example of political crime is unauthorized eacesdropping by the government on its political adversaries. finally hate crimes are crimes against a person or group that are motivcated by bias. lynching cross burning and gay bashing are examples of hate crimes.
Decibe the six basic types of crime and give an example of each.
Crime involves the violation of formal norms called laws. conventional (or street) crime refers to all violent crimes and certain types of vice and property crimes. Murder is a conventioanl crime. white collar crime is the breking of law by people of high social position in the course of their employment. Insider trading is an example of white collar crime. corporate crime refers to illegal activities engaged in by people acting on behalf of a corporation. bid rigging is an example of corporate crime. organized crime is criminal activity engaged in for profit by an organized group such as a gang. international arms smuggling is an organized crime. political crime refers to illegal or unethical activities engaged in by members of the government or by people seeking to overthrow the government. an example of political crime is unauthorized eacesdropping by the government on its political adversaries. finally hate crimes are crimes against a person or group that are motivcated by bias. lynching cross burning and gay bashing are examples of hate crimes.
Decibe the six basic types of crime and give an example of each.
Crime involves the violation of formal norms called laws. conventional (or street) crime refers to all violent crimes and certain types of vice and property crimes. Murder is a conventioanl crime. white collar crime is the breking of law by people of high social position in the course of their employment. Insider trading is an example of white collar crime. corporate crime refers to illegal activities engaged in by people acting on behalf of a corporation. bid rigging is an example of corporate crime. organized crime is criminal activity engaged in for profit by an organized group such as a gang. international arms smuggling is an organized crime. political crime refers to illegal or unethical activities engaged in by members of the government or by people seeking to overthrow the government. an example of political crime is unauthorized eacesdropping by the government on its political adversaries. finally hate crimes are crimes against a person or group that are motivcated by bias. lynching cross burning and gay bashing are examples of hate crimes.
Decibe the six basic types of crime and give an example of each.
Crime involves the violation of formal norms called laws. conventional (or street) crime refers to all violent crimes and certain types of vice and property crimes. Murder is a conventioanl crime. white collar crime is the breking of law by people of high social position in the course of their employment. Insider trading is an example of white collar crime. corporate crime refers to illegal activities engaged in by people acting on behalf of a corporation. bid rigging is an example of corporate crime. organized crime is criminal activity engaged in for profit by an organized group such as a gang. international arms smuggling is an organized crime. political crime refers to illegal or unethical activities engaged in by members of the government or by people seeking to overthrow the government. an example of political crime is unauthorized eacesdropping by the government on its political adversaries. finally hate crimes are crimes against a person or group that are motivcated by bias. lynching cross burning and gay bashing are examples of hate crimes.
Decibe the six basic types of crime and give an example of each.
Crime involves the violation of formal norms called laws. conventional (or street) crime refers to all violent crimes and certain types of vice and property crimes. Murder is a conventioanl crime. white collar crime is the breking of law by people of high social position in the course of their employment. Insider trading is an example of white collar crime. corporate crime refers to illegal activities engaged in by people acting on behalf of a corporation. bid rigging is an example of corporate crime. organized crime is criminal activity engaged in for profit by an organized group such as a gang. international arms smuggling is an organized crime. political crime refers to illegal or unethical activities engaged in by members of the government or by people seeking to overthrow the government. an example of political crime is unauthorized eacesdropping by the government on its political adversaries. finally hate crimes are crimes against a person or group that are motivcated by bias. lynching cross burning and gay bashing are examples of hate crimes.
Decibe the six basic types of crime and give an example of each.
Crime involves the violation of formal norms called laws. conventional (or street) crime refers to all violent crimes and certain types of vice and property crimes. Murder is a conventioanl crime. white collar crime is the breking of law by people of high social position in the course of their employment. Insider trading is an example of white collar crime. corporate crime refers to illegal activities engaged in by people acting on behalf of a corporation. bid rigging is an example of corporate crime. organized crime is criminal activity engaged in for profit by an organized group such as a gang. international arms smuggling is an organized crime. political crime refers to illegal or unethical activities engaged in by members of the government or by people seeking to overthrow the government. an example of political crime is unauthorized eacesdropping by the government on its political adversaries. finally hate crimes are crimes against a person or group that are motivcated by bias. lynching cross burning and gay bashing are examples of hate crimes.
Decibe the six basic types of crime and give an example of each.
Crime involves the violation of formal norms called laws. conventional (or street) crime refers to all violent crimes and certain types of vice and property crimes. Murder is a conventioanl crime. white collar crime is the breking of law by people of high social position in the course of their employment. Insider trading is an example of white collar crime. corporate crime refers to illegal activities engaged in by people acting on behalf of a corporation. bid rigging is an example of corporate crime. organized crime is criminal activity engaged in for profit by an organized group such as a gang. international arms smuggling is an organized crime. political crime refers to illegal or unethical activities engaged in by members of the government or by people seeking to overthrow the government. an example of political crime is unauthorized eacesdropping by the government on its political adversaries. finally hate crimes are crimes against a person or group that are motivcated by bias. lynching cross burning and gay bashing are examples of hate crimes.
Decibe the six basic types of crime and give an example of each.
Crime involves the violation of formal norms called laws. conventional (or street) crime refers to all violent crimes and certain types of vice and property crimes. Murder is a conventioanl crime. white collar crime is the breking of law by people of high social position in the course of their employment. Insider trading is an example of white collar crime. corporate crime refers to illegal activities engaged in by people acting on behalf of a corporation. bid rigging is an example of corporate crime. organized crime is criminal activity engaged in for profit by an organized group such as a gang. international arms smuggling is an organized crime. political crime refers to illegal or unethical activities engaged in by members of the government or by people seeking to overthrow the government. an example of political crime is unauthorized eacesdropping by the government on its political adversaries. finally hate crimes are crimes against a person or group that are motivcated by bias. lynching cross burning and gay bashing are examples of hate crimes.
how does the conflict perspective explain deviance
the conflict perspective addresses why activities or conditons are defined as deviant rather than addressing the motivations of people engaging in deviance. this perspectice argues that people with political and ecomonic power are likely to define any type of behavior that threatens their interests and privilege as deviant.
how does the conflict perspective explain deviance
the conflict perspective addresses why activities or conditons are defined as deviant rather than addressing the motivations of people engaging in deviance. this perspectice argues that people with political and ecomonic power are likely to define any type of behavior that threatens their interests and privilege as deviant.
how does the conflict perspective explain deviance
the conflict perspective addresses why activities or conditons are defined as deviant rather than addressing the motivations of people engaging in deviance. this perspectice argues that people with political and ecomonic power are likely to define any type of behavior that threatens their interests and privilege as deviant.
how does the conflict perspective explain deviance
the conflict perspective addresses why activities or conditons are defined as deviant rather than addressing the motivations of people engaging in deviance. this perspectice argues that people with political and ecomonic power are likely to define any type of behavior that threatens their interests and privilege as deviant.
how does the conflict perspective explain deviance
the conflict perspective addresses why activities or conditons are defined as deviant rather than addressing the motivations of people engaging in deviance. this perspectice argues that people with political and ecomonic power are likely to define any type of behavior that threatens their interests and privilege as deviant.
how does the conflict perspective explain deviance
the conflict perspective addresses why activities or conditons are defined as deviant rather than addressing the motivations of people engaging in deviance. this perspectice argues that people with political and ecomonic power are likely to define any type of behavior that threatens their interests and privilege as deviant.
how does the conflict perspective explain deviance
the conflict perspective addresses why activities or conditons are defined as deviant rather than addressing the motivations of people engaging in deviance. this perspectice argues that people with political and ecomonic power are likely to define any type of behavior that threatens their interests and privilege as deviant.
how does the conflict perspective explain deviance
the conflict perspective addresses why activities or conditons are defined as deviant rather than addressing the motivations of people engaging in deviance. this perspectice argues that people with political and ecomonic power are likely to define any type of behavior that threatens their interests and privilege as deviant.
what is punishment? wht are the different motivations for punishment?
punishment consists of attempts to extinguish or stop undesirable behavior. it frequently involves actions to deprive a person of things of value because of something ther person is believed to have done. the four main motives for punishment are retrivution deterrence rehavilitation and societyal protection. retrivution is the oldest motice and involves an attempt by society to exact suffering upon a criminal proportional to the suffering the criminal caused. deterrence seeks to punish people in order to discourage future criminal actions. rehabilitation involves the attempt to reform and resocilize people in an attempt to prevent their future engaagement in crime. societal protection involves the removal of a person from society in order to render them incapable of committing crimes for a period of time.
what is punishment? wht are the different motivations for punishment?
punishment consists of attempts to extinguish or stop undesirable behavior. it frequently involves actions to deprive a person of things of value because of something ther person is believed to have done. the four main motives for punishment are retrivution deterrence rehavilitation and societyal protection. retrivution is the oldest motice and involves an attempt by society to exact suffering upon a criminal proportional to the suffering the criminal caused. deterrence seeks to punish people in order to discourage future criminal actions. rehabilitation involves the attempt to reform and resocilize people in an attempt to prevent their future engaagement in crime. societal protection involves the removal of a person from society in order to render them incapable of committing crimes for a period of time.
what is punishment? wht are the different motivations for punishment?
punishment consists of attempts to extinguish or stop undesirable behavior. it frequently involves actions to deprive a person of things of value because of something ther person is believed to have done. the four main motives for punishment are retrivution deterrence rehavilitation and societyal protection. retrivution is the oldest motice and involves an attempt by society to exact suffering upon a criminal proportional to the suffering the criminal caused. deterrence seeks to punish people in order to discourage future criminal actions. rehabilitation involves the attempt to reform and resocilize people in an attempt to prevent their future engaagement in crime. societal protection involves the removal of a person from society in order to render them incapable of committing crimes for a period of time.
what is punishment? wht are the different motivations for punishment?
punishment consists of attempts to extinguish or stop undesirable behavior. it frequently involves actions to deprive a person of things of value because of something ther person is believed to have done. the four main motives for punishment are retrivution deterrence rehavilitation and societyal protection. retrivution is the oldest motice and involves an attempt by society to exact suffering upon a criminal proportional to the suffering the criminal caused. deterrence seeks to punish people in order to discourage future criminal actions. rehabilitation involves the attempt to reform and resocilize people in an attempt to prevent their future engaagement in crime. societal protection involves the removal of a person from society in order to render them incapable of committing crimes for a period of time.
what is punishment? wht are the different motivations for punishment?
punishment consists of attempts to extinguish or stop undesirable behavior. it frequently involves actions to deprive a person of things of value because of something ther person is believed to have done. the four main motives for punishment are retrivution deterrence rehavilitation and societyal protection. retrivution is the oldest motice and involves an attempt by society to exact suffering upon a criminal proportional to the suffering the criminal caused. deterrence seeks to punish people in order to discourage future criminal actions. rehabilitation involves the attempt to reform and resocilize people in an attempt to prevent their future engaagement in crime. societal protection involves the removal of a person from society in order to render them incapable of committing crimes for a period of time.
what is punishment? wht are the different motivations for punishment?
punishment consists of attempts to extinguish or stop undesirable behavior. it frequently involves actions to deprive a person of things of value because of something ther person is believed to have done. the four main motives for punishment are retrivution deterrence rehavilitation and societyal protection. retrivution is the oldest motice and involves an attempt by society to exact suffering upon a criminal proportional to the suffering the criminal caused. deterrence seeks to punish people in order to discourage future criminal actions. rehabilitation involves the attempt to reform and resocilize people in an attempt to prevent their future engaagement in crime. societal protection involves the removal of a person from society in order to render them incapable of committing crimes for a period of time.
what is punishment? wht are the different motivations for punishment?
punishment consists of attempts to extinguish or stop undesirable behavior. it frequently involves actions to deprive a person of things of value because of something ther person is believed to have done. the four main motives for punishment are retrivution deterrence rehavilitation and societyal protection. retrivution is the oldest motice and involves an attempt by society to exact suffering upon a criminal proportional to the suffering the criminal caused. deterrence seeks to punish people in order to discourage future criminal actions. rehabilitation involves the attempt to reform and resocilize people in an attempt to prevent their future engaagement in crime. societal protection involves the removal of a person from society in order to render them incapable of committing crimes for a period of time.
what is punishment? wht are the different motivations for punishment?
punishment consists of attempts to extinguish or stop undesirable behavior. it frequently involves actions to deprive a person of things of value because of something ther person is believed to have done. the four main motives for punishment are retrivution deterrence rehavilitation and societyal protection. retrivution is the oldest motice and involves an attempt by society to exact suffering upon a criminal proportional to the suffering the criminal caused. deterrence seeks to punish people in order to discourage future criminal actions. rehabilitation involves the attempt to reform and resocilize people in an attempt to prevent their future engaagement in crime. societal protection involves the removal of a person from society in order to render them incapable of committing crimes for a period of time.
caste system
a stratification system in which people's social status is determined at virth based upon their parent's ascribed status.
caste system
a stratification system in which people's social status is determined at virth based upon their parent's ascribed status.
caste system
a stratification system in which people's social status is determined at virth based upon their parent's ascribed status.
caste system
a stratification system in which people's social status is determined at virth based upon their parent's ascribed status.
caste system
a stratification system in which people's social status is determined at virth based upon their parent's ascribed status.
class system
a stratification system that permits a significant amount of mobility between positions
class system
a stratification system that permits a significant amount of mobility between positions
caste system
a stratification system in which people's social status is determined at virth based upon their parent's ascribed status.
caste system
a stratification system in which people's social status is determined at virth based upon their parent's ascribed status.
class system
a stratification system that permits a significant amount of mobility between positions
class system
a stratification system that permits a significant amount of mobility between positions
class system
a stratification system that permits a significant amount of mobility between positions
life chances
the opportunity to acquire valuable soical rewards and resources
caste system
a stratification system in which people's social status is determined at virth based upon their parent's ascribed status.
class system
a stratification system that permits a significant amount of mobility between positions
life chances
the opportunity to acquire valuable soical rewards and resources
class system
a stratification system that permits a significant amount of mobility between positions
life chances
the opportunity to acquire valuable soical rewards and resources
life chances
the opportunity to acquire valuable soical rewards and resources
life chances
the opportunity to acquire valuable soical rewards and resources
class system
a stratification system that permits a significant amount of mobility between positions
intergenerational mobility
social mobility experienced by family members from one generation to the next.
life chances
the opportunity to acquire valuable soical rewards and resources
intergenerational mobility
social mobility experienced by family members from one generation to the next.
intragenerational mobility
social mobility experienced within an indivdual's lifetime
life chances
the opportunity to acquire valuable soical rewards and resources
intergenerational mobility
social mobility experienced by family members from one generation to the next.
intergenerational mobility
social mobility experienced by family members from one generation to the next.
intergenerational mobility
social mobility experienced by family members from one generation to the next.
life chances
the opportunity to acquire valuable soical rewards and resources
intergenerational mobility
social mobility experienced by family members from one generation to the next.
intergenerational mobility
social mobility experienced by family members from one generation to the next.
means of production
the productive economic resources of society especially land captial and buildings
intragenerational mobility
social mobility experienced within an indivdual's lifetime
intragenerational mobility
social mobility experienced within an indivdual's lifetime
intragenerational mobility
social mobility experienced within an indivdual's lifetime
means of production
the productive economic resources of society especially land captial and buildings
intragenerational mobility
social mobility experienced within an indivdual's lifetime
intragenerational mobility
social mobility experienced within an indivdual's lifetime
means of production
the productive economic resources of society especially land captial and buildings
intergenerational mobility
social mobility experienced by family members from one generation to the next.
intragenerational mobility
social mobility experienced within an indivdual's lifetime
meritocracy
the allocation of status based upon personal ability credentials and achievement
means of production
the productive economic resources of society especially land captial and buildings
meritocracy
the allocation of status based upon personal ability credentials and achievement
means of production
the productive economic resources of society especially land captial and buildings
means of production
the productive economic resources of society especially land captial and buildings
intragenerational mobility
social mobility experienced within an indivdual's lifetime
meritocracy
the allocation of status based upon personal ability credentials and achievement
meritocracy
the allocation of status based upon personal ability credentials and achievement
means of production
the productive economic resources of society especially land captial and buildings
meritocracy
the allocation of status based upon personal ability credentials and achievement
meritocracy
the allocation of status based upon personal ability credentials and achievement
means of production
the productive economic resources of society especially land captial and buildings
meritocracy
the allocation of status based upon personal ability credentials and achievement
meritocracy
the allocation of status based upon personal ability credentials and achievement
describe the six basic types of crime and give an example of each
crime involves the violation of formal norms called laws. conventional (or street) crime refers to all violent crimes and certain types of vice and property crimes. Murder is a conventional crime. white collr crime is the breaking of law by people of high social position in the course of their employment. insider trading is an example of white collar crime. corporate crime regers to illegal activities engaged in by people acting on behalf of a corporation. bid rigging is an example of corporate crime. organized crime is criminal activity engaged in for profit by an organized group such as a gang. international arms smuggling is an organized crime. political crime regers to illegal or unethical activities engaged in by members of the governmetn or by people seeking to overthrow the government. an example of political crime is unauthorized eavesdropping by the government on its political adversaries. finaly hate cirmes are crimes against a person or group that are motivated by bias. lynching, cross burning, and gay bashing are examples of hate crimes.
How does the conflict perspective explain deviance
the conflict perspective addresses why activiteis or conditions are defined as deviant rather than addressing the motivations of people engaging in deviance. this perspective argues that people with political and economic power are likely to define any type of behavior that threatens their interests and priviledge as deviant.
what is punishment?what are the different motivations for punishment?
Punishment consists of attempts to extinguish or stop undesirable behavior. it frequently involves actions to deprive a person of things of value because of something the person is believed to have done. the four main motives for punishment are retribution, deterrence, rehabilitation, and societal protection. retribution is the oldest motive and involves an attempt by society to exact suffering upon a criminal propotional to the suffring the criminal caused. deterrance seeks to punish people in orger to discourage future criminal actions. rehabilitation involves the attempt to reform and resocialize people in an attempt to prevent their future engagement in crime. societal protection involves the removal of a person from society in order to render tehm incapable of committing rimes for a period of time.
caste system
a stratification system in which people's social status is determined at birth based upon their parent's ascribed status
calss system
a stratification system that permits a significant amount of mobility between positions
life chances
the opportunity to acquire valuable social rewards and resources
intergenerational mobility
social mobility experienced by family members from one generation to the next.
means of production
the porductive economic resources of society especially land captial and buildings
meritocracy
the allocation of status based upon personal ability credentials and achievement.
power
the ability of a group or person to achieve their aims and exercise their will despite the resistance of others
prestige
social honor deference and respect
property
the economic resources that an individual owns or controls.
slave systems
stratification systems characterized by the ownership of some people by others
social mobility
movement between positions in a stratification hierarchy.
social stratification
a hieracrhiacal system that ranks large groups of people based upon important social and physical characteristics
socioeconomic status (SES)
a combined measure that classifies people according to their occupation education and income.
Erik Olin Wright
contemporary Marxist scholar who identified four criteria for determining class location in advanced capitalist societies
Karl Marx
one of the first socail philosophers to critically examine social stratification and state that a person's positon is determined by his or her relationship to the means of production.
Max Weber
Marxian student who found social stratification to be multidimensional (based on power, prestige, and property) rather than being determined by a single factor.
Explain the functionalist perspective on social stratification.
the funtionalist perspective,especially as articulated in the Davis _Moore thesis, focuses on the inequality of rewards (such as pay and benefits) between differenct jobs and positions in society. This perspective argues that unequal rewards motivate talented people to strive to fill the most important positions in society. Because the functionally important positions require extensive training and specialized skills the promise of greater rewards motivates qualified people to acquire these skills and training.
what is the difference between open and closed systems of stratification? provide an example of each type of system. what type of system is characteristic of the United States today?
the difference between open and closed systems of stratification is the presence of social mobility (movement between positions in a stratification system) closed systems such as slave and caste systems are characterized by the absence of social mobility. Statuses in closed systems are ascribed; one inherits their position at birth. Open systems specifically calss systems are characterized by the opportunity for mobility and achieved statuses though ascribed factors such as ethnicity and gender still influence the attainment of positions. the stratification system in the United States is a class system, which is the only open form of stratification system.
What is social mobility? what factors influence social mobility how is social mobility measured
social mobility is movement between positions in a stratification hieracrchy. such movement occurs as the result of two factors. the first is comprised of individual level factors such as educational credentials skills and experience. ascribed individual characteristics such as gender and ethnicity also influence mobility. the second factor is structural social mobility, which accounts for the majority of mobility. this causes movement between positions as a result in changes in the basis of the economy and underlying distribution of jobs. Mobility is measured in two ways. Intrageneratinoal mobility is movement between positions that occurs during the lifetime of an individual. Intergenrational mobility is movement experienced by family members from one generation to the next. There is more intergenerational mobility than intragenerational, because the period of time over which mobility is measured is longer (multiple generations versus a single generation)
according to Marx, how is class membership determined?
Marx believed that economic relationships were the foundation of all other relationships in a society. Accordingly, Marx believed that class position was determined by one's relationship to the productive economic resources in a society, or what he termied the means of production. He labled the people that owned these resources the bourgeoisie. he called those that owned only their ability to labor which they sold to the bourgeoisie in exchange for wages the proletaritat. these were only two classes that Marx believed existed in a capitalist society.
What are the three dimensions of stratification that Weber identified
Weber extended Marx's analysis of stratification. He argued that stratification was multidimensonial rather than one dimensional as proposed by Marx. A person's position or status in society was the result of the interplay of three factors: power, prestige,and property. By property, Weber meant the economic resources a person owned or controlled. Prestige refers to the soical honor and respect an individual is accorded by others, often as a result of their occupation., knship ties, and education. Power is the ability to get one's way despite the resistance of others.
Describe the difference between status consistency and status inconsistency
the concepts of status consistency and status inconsistency are derived from Weber's multidemensional analysis of how status is determined in a stratification system.. Weber identified three factors that shaped a person's postion in society: class, party, and status. he envisioned each as a continuum. status consistency exists when one occupies comparable positions in each of the three continuums. status inconsistency exists when a person occupies divergent positions in each of the three continuums. status inconsistency is characteristic of American society.
How many social classes does the Weberian model identify in the United States? List the largest and the smallest classes.
There are six social calsses in the United States: the upper class, the upper-middle class, the lower-middle class, the working class, the working poor, and the underclass. the lower-middle and working calsses are the two largest classes-each containing about 30% of the population. the upper class is the smallest class-about 3 to 5% of the population.
absolute poverty
the state where people are deprived of basic necessities and struggle for day to day survival.
deindustrialization
the movement of relatively high wage manufacturing jobs from the United States to countries where cheaper wages can be paid.
feminization of poverty
The trend toward the overrepresentation of women living in official poverty.
job deskilling
the reduction of the skills and proficiencies needed to perform a job accompanied by a corresponding reduction in wages paid for the job
income
cash flow into a household over a period of time
official poverty
government determined level of household income needed to live at a subsistence level.
relative poverty
the state where people are deprived of the resources needed to enjoy the average standard of living in a society
wealth
the net value of assts at a point in time
what is the difference between income and wealth? is there more income or wealth inequality in the United States?
income and wealth are two different measures of economic inequality. Income represents cash flow into a household over aperiod of time, including wages rents alimony and dividentds. Wealth represents the net worth of assets such as homes cars and stocks at a point in time. inequality of wealth is more pronounced that inequality of income. the top 20% of households in the United States recieved 50% of all income earned in the country, but they own 80% of all wealth.
how does economic inequality impact life chances
life chances are correlated with a person's position in the social class hierarchy. as one moves down the class hierarchy, life expectancy and access to quality health care and prenatal care both decrease; infant mortality increases. educational opportunities are also correlated with class position. children born to more privileged parents are more likely to attend well funded schools with academically enriched curriculums. likewise children born to poorer parents are less likely to attend college than comparably talented children of privileged parents. the reduced life chances experienced by the less well to do diminish the quality of life experienced.
distinguish between the three different ways poverty can be measured
poverty can be conceptualized and measured in three different ways. official poverty is determined by the government based upon the income believed needed to live at merely a subsistence lebel. absolute poberty exists when people are unable to secure the most basic resources necessary to sustain life from one day to the next. Relative poverty is poverty that exists in relation to some comparison group or standard. in the United States, relative poverty refers to people who may possess the resources necessary to live from day to day but who lack the resources necessary to enjoy the average standard of living in a society.
what is the feminiation of poverty
the feminization of poverty refers to the trend during the last 30 years for women to be increasingly overrepresented among the poor, relative to men. currently, over 60% of all poor adults are female. several factors contribute to this trend. divorce has become more soically acceptable in the United States. However, because women on average earn 60 to 70% of what men earn, women are more likely to experience economic hardship when divorce occurs (especially when alimony is difficult to secure). Moreover, if children are involved, women are more likely to gain. custody because of dominant cultural norms. This added expense, combined with the likelihood that a woman is paid less than a man contributes to the growing presence of women among the poor.
Of which ethnic or racial group are most poor people members?
Most poor people are Caucasian. Almost half (46%) of al lpeople defined as officially poor are Caucasians. however a lower proportion of Caucasians live in poverty than the proportion of any other ethnic or racial group. the reason a poor person is most likely to be caucasian rather than of some other ethnic group is that caucasians represent roughly three quarters of the population in the United States
Name the ethnic or racial group(s) withthe greatest proportion of members living in poverty.
Though most poor people are Caucasian, less than 8 % of all Caucasians are officailly classified as poor. Native Americans have the highest poverty rate of any ethnic group in the United States with an offical poverty rate in 1999 of 25.9%. Between these extremes, 10.7 % of Asian American, 22.8% of all hispanics and 23.6% of all african americans are officially poor. to state it differently, hispanics african americans and native americans are three times more likely than caucasians to live in poverty.
what are the three main sources of poverty
poverty may be related to several factors. one is the type of jobs that poor people work at. most poor people work they simply work at unstable jobs that pay low wages. a second factor is deindustrialization. this is the process by which the higher paying manufacturing jobs in which middle and lower skilled people used to work are moved to countries where the wages are lower. thses jobs have been replaced by lower paying jobs mainly in the service sector of the economy. finally job deskilling contibutes to povrety. jov deskilling is the process by which the skills and proficiencies necessary to do a job are reduced often through automation and computerization accompanied by a corresponding reduction in wages.
core nations
dominant captialist countries that have high levels of urbanization and industrialzation
dependency theory
explains global inequality as the result of the exploitation of lower income countries by higher income countries
global stratification
the unequal distributinof wealth power prestige and life chances on a global scale
health
a state of complete mental soical and qhysical well being not simply the absence of disease
infant mortality
the number of deaths per one thousand live births
literacy
the ability to read and write at least simple statements with udnerstanding
modernization theory
explains global inequality in terms of cultural and technological differences among societies. focuses on the factors and conditions necessary for a sountry to become fully modern (economically developed).
peripheral nations
nations that have low levels of industrial accompanied by uneven patterns of ubanization and are dependent upon core nations for captial.
semiperipheral nations
have levels of industrialization and urbanization below taht of core nations but above the levels of peripheral nations
world systems theory
explains global inequality as the result of a global system of economic relations in which the higher income nations benefit form the lower income nations
Immanuel Wallerstein
developed the world systems theroy which stresses the economic links among countries
Walt Rostow
proponent of modernization theory who believed that countries go through four stages of economic development
what is global stratification
global stratification refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, power prestige and life chances between the different nations of the earth.
describe the difficulties of studyng global stratification in historical terms
early attempts to study global stratification used the three worlds approach. this approach intermingled cold war politics with the assessment of a country's level of development. first world countries were not just developed countries whose citizens enjoyed a relatively high standard of living; they also had political democracies and capitalist economies. second world nations were those with moderate levels of development and standards of living and socialist econiomic and political systems. third world countries were those whose economies remained largely based on agriculture and whose standards of living were hetergeneous. many of these countries were governed by autocratic dictaroships,. the end of the cold war combined with the recognition of the heterogeneity found among third world countires stimulated the development of new approaches to studying global inequality.
what are the characteristics of high income medium income and low income countries
the world bank which specializes in providing economic aid to low and middle income counties breaks the worlds countries into three different catagories based upon a country's GNP. high income countires such as the Untied States and the western European nations are those that have a GNP in excess of $9,655 U.S. dollars per capita. Middle income countries are those with a GNP between $785 and $9,655 U.S. dollars per capita. These include many of the countries in Latin America, the middle east and eastern europe. low income countries are those with GNP's below $785 U.S. dollars per capita. these include much of Africa and Asia. the majority of the world's population lives in low income countries.
how does global inequality influence the life chances of people in different countries
the uneven distribution of resources, such as wealth and power between different counties leads to widely varying life chances among the people of the world. poverty especially absolute poverty is more prevalent and concentrated among the low and middle income countries. this results in severely circumscribed life chances among these countries citizens. moreover infant mortality is greater and life expectancy is shorter among the lower income countries and hunger malnutrition and inadequate health care are far more common. women are more likely to be exploited in low income countries and lieracy rated tend to be bery low relative to high income countries.
summarize modernization theroy and its shorcomings. with which major sociolgical perspective is it associated
modernization theory is associated with the functionalist perspective in sociology. modernization theory explains global inequality in terms of the cultural and technological differences between countries. it identifies four stages in the modernization process: the traditional stage,, the take-off stage, the technological maturity stage, and the high mass consupmption stage. in the first stage societies remain largely unchanged, but the pull of tradition and custom is gradually weakened by new technological discoveries that facilitate economic growth. the second stage is characterized by rapid economic growth accompanied by a growing belief in indibidualism competition and achievement. further technologival advancement as well as investment in new industries and further acceptance of the culture of high income nations characterizes the stage of technological maturity. during the final stage citizens begin enjoying a high standard of living. critics of this approach argue it is eurocentric because it claims that countries must adopt the core cultural components of high income countireis (such as the United states) in order to develop. Critics also charge that modernization theory arbitarily labels less developed countries as backwards.
discuss dependency theory and how it accounts for global inequality
dependency theory argues that global inequality is the result of higher income countries exploiting lower income countries. lower income countries are viewed as trapped in a cycle of dependency upon higher incom countries for capital and export markets for raw materials, much the way colonial territories were exploited by wealthier countries. this dependency limits the ability of lower income countries to pursue economic self determination. the poverty and immiseration experienced by citizens of lower incom countries is caused by their exploitation by higher income countries; it isnt caused by their lack of economic development. exploitation, rather than underdevelopment is seen as the cause of global inequality.
how does world systems theory differ from dependency theory
world systems theory argues that global inequality is the result of the investment decisions of core or high income nations and not as the result of explitation. this theory conceives of a global hierarchy of nations based upon levels of industrialization, urbaization, and standards of living. core nations are dominant capitalist countries with a high level of urbanization and industrialization that exert disproportionate influence over world trade and economic agreements.semiperipheral nations are those that are less developed than core nations but more advanced than the peripheral nations. semiperipheral nations exploit the resouces and peoples of peripheral nations while they themselves are exploited by the core nations. peripheral nations have uneven patterns of urbanization and industrializattion and are dependent upon core nations for captial.
with which major sociological perspective are both dependency theroy and world systems theory associated?
both dependency theory and world systems theroy are associated with the conflict perspective. the conflict perspective views one group, or in this case set of countires, as dominant. the dominant group or countries use their superior power (economic military political) and superior economic resourves to shape and influence global economic relations to best serve the interests of the dominant nations. while the mechanisms of domination vary between dependency and world systems theroy both biew the high income countries as dominant players in the global economic system. they both also view thses dominat countries as using their relative superior power and influence to structure global economic relations to disproportionately benefit the dominant countries.
assimilation
process by which members of subordinate groups adapt to and become absorbed by the dominant culture.
authoritarian personality
a personality characterized by rigid conformity to conventional expectations insecurity intolerance sterotypical thinking and submissiveness to authority.
cultural theories of prejudice
explain prejudice as a learned behavior based upon an understanding of culturally desirable and undesirable traits and characteristics.
discrimination
action that involves treating different catergories or groups of people unequally.
ethnic groups
recognized by themselves or others as a distinct group on the basis of social or cultural characteristics often on the basis of language ancestry religion or country or region of origin
ethnic pluralism
the equitable coexistence of a variety of different ethnic and racial groups within a society.
frustration aggression hypothesis
prejudice develops among people who are frustrated with their inablility to achieve highly desired goals and respond with aggression toward others.
genocide
the systematic killing of one category of people by another
institutional discrimination
the arrangements or practices in social institutions and their related organizations that tend to favor one category or group of people over others.
majority group
any group that enjoys more than its proportionate share of wealth power and prestige
minority group
any group that is assigned an inferior position in society and recieves less than its proportionate share of wealth power and prestige
prejudice
a negative attitude about an entire category of people based upon
race
a socially constructed category of people who share physical traits that are socially defined as important
racism
a form of prejudice involving the belief that some racial or ethnic groups are innately superior or inferior to others.
scapegoat
a person or category of people who possesses little power and are unfairly blamed for the difficulties experienced by others
segregation
the social and physical speration of categories of people by race ethnicity class gender or religion
social distance
the extent to which people are willing or unwilling to interact with members of different ethnic or racial groups
sterotypes
exaggerated beliefs associated with a category of people.
Theodor Adorno
explained prejudice as a personality trait found in individuals that possess an authoritarian personality.
William Julius Wilson
Argued that class is now more important than race for understanding the access to valuable social resources such as jobs.
what is the difference between majority and minority groups
a minority group is not neccessarily one that is numerically smaller than other groups. sociologically speaking, a minority group is any group that is assigned an inferior status in society and possesses less than its proportionate share of social resources such as wealth status and power. the basic characteristic of a minority group is powerlessness. in contrast a majority group may be smaller in numbers but is a group that possesses more than its proportionate share of valuzble social resources
why is it said that race is a socially constructed category
race is said to be a socially constructed category because the important physical traits thought to characterize a racial group are socially defined and vary between societies
describe the properties of minority groups that distinguish them from the majority group
the main properties of minority groups include the following
. persons are treated unequally
. unfavorable treatment fosters a distinctive group identity based upon group memebers awareness of themselves as a minority group

.membership in minority groups is ascribed or inherited (usaully at birth) and is not a status voluntarily assumed
.minority groups possess cultural and or physical characteristics that are used to distinguish them from the dominant group.
.minority group members tend to practice in group marriage (endogamy)
what is prejudice?how is it different from discrimination?
prejudice is a negative attitude about an entire category of people while discrimination involves negative actions towards minority group members. prejudice is based upon rigid and irrational generaliziations and beliefs about an entire category of people ( known as sterotypes)
in what ways do sociologists explain prejudice
sociologists explain prejudice in three ways. cultural theories of prejudice emphasize that prejudice is an attitude learned through socialization. people learn which characteristics are socially defined as desirable and undesirable and that some groups are believed to possess more undesirable characteristics than others. it is further learned that one should keep more social distance from those groups believed to disproportionately possess undesirable traits. the frustration aggression hypothesis states that prejudice is more likely to be found in and expressed by people who are frustrated with their inablility to attain highly desired goals. this frustration leads some people to try and blame some other person or group for their failures. the frustrated person then begins to act prejudicially and aggressively towards members of the identified group. theodor adorno explained prejudice as a personality trait found in certain individuals arguing that highly prejudiced people possess an authoritarian personality. such a personality is characterized by rigid conformityto conventional expectations submissiveness or obedience to authority insecurity and intolerance and sterotypical thinking. such personalities are acquired through socialization within a family of dominating and cold parents who show little love and use physical punishment
what is institutional discrimination? how does it differ from individual discrimination?
institutional discrimination refers to the arrangements or practices in social institutions and their related organizations that tend to favor one ethnic racial or gender group over others. it isnt necessarily the result of conscious intent rather it simply arises from the normal day to day functioning of society
summarized the assimilationist and pluarlist views on ethnic and race relations
there are two main functionalist views on race and ethnic relations. both models view ethnic and racial differences as ultimately contributing to the stability of a society though the mechanisms differ. the assimilation model argues that the deprivation of minority group members encourages them to adopt the cultural characteristics of the dominant group. this is called cultural assimilation and it serves to decrease the social distance between the subordinate and dominant group often at the expense of the loss of the culture of origin of the subordinate group. structural assimilation occurs when memebers of the dominant group extend acceptance to subordinate group members in everday interactions. the second functionalist view is ethnic pluralism. this model argues that the equitable coexistance of a variety of different ethnic and racial groups within one society involving the relatively proportional possession of social resources contributes to social stability. however pluralism can lead to an increase in social distance between groups if the cultural differences are viewed as barriers to social interaction
which conflict models of race and ethnic relations view the experience of African Americans as distinclty unique?why?
there are four conflict models of race and ethnic relations. two of them view the experience of African Americans as uniquely different from the experience of other minority groups: the caste perspective and the colonial imperialism model. the caste perspective argues that racial and ethnic inequality is a permanent feature of society and the experience of African AMericans is unique because their mistreatment was legally sanctioned both under slavery and the caste like Jim Crow system. the sterotypes necessary to justify such harsh discrimination have become deeply embedded in the cultural beliefs and attitudes of dominant American culture, helping to maintain the distinctive experience of African Americans. the internal colonialism model is the other perspective that argues the experience of African Americans is uniquely different. from this view however the uniqueness devies from the forcible economic and political repression of African Americans by the dominant group which lingers to this day.
Distinguish between the class model of race and ethnic relations and the split labor market model
the class perspective on racial and ethnic inequality emphasizes the role of the capitalist class in the exploitation of minority groups. it is the profit motive and greed not racial hatred and prejudice that accounts for the continued exploitation of minority groups. African Americans as well as other minority groups reprsented cheap labor that could be used to create profit and wealth. the split labor market perspective extends the class model by noting that it ias not just the capitalist class that benefits from the exploitation of ethnic and racial groups; white workers as a class also benefit form this exploitation and subjugation. from this perspective the economy is divided into two segments. the primary sector contains the higher paying and more secure jobs mainly occupied by white workers. the secondary sector is composed of lower paying less stable jobs that are taken mainly by ethnic and racial minorities. to restrict access to the primary sector jobs whites use discrimination.
which ethnic/racial group in the United States is considered the charter group?
a charter group is the group that sets the cultural tone of a society and estabishes its cultrual foundations. WASPs (white anglo saxon protestants) made up the charter group in the United States.
comparable worth
the belief that pay ought to reflect the worth of a job and not the race or gender of the worker.
differential socialization
the process by which different members of the same society (and even the same family ) are raised differently because of the different roles thy are expected to perform as adults.
feminism
the belief in and advocacy for both the equality of and the equal treatment of men and women.
gender
the culturllay constructed meanings behaviors and attitudes associated with what it means to be male or female in a given society.
gender roles
the expected behaviors attitudes and activities socially defined as appropriate for each sex.
human capital
the education training skills and experience a person possesses
matriarchy
a form of social organization in which females dominate males through control of the political cultural and economic institutions of a society
occupational sex segregation
the concentration of men and women in certain occuapations based upon gender role expectations and traits.
patriarchy
a form of social organization in which males dominate females through control of the political cultural and economic institutions of a society.
sex
the biologival differences between males and females
sexism
the belief that one sex is innately superior or inferior to the other.
margaret mead
studied male and female roles in new guinea and found them to be reverse of roles in the United States.
Talcott Parsons
functionalist who argued that the social differentiation between male and female roles is functionally necessary for social cohesion and social survival
what is the difference between sex and gender
sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between males and females. these differences are constant over time and between societies while the meaning of gender varies over time within societies. gender refers to the culturally constructed meanings behaviors and attitudes associated with what it means to be male or female in a given society.
what are gender roles? provide some examples of the male and female gender roles
gender roles are behaviors attitudes and activities that are socially defined as appropriate for each sex to exhibit. men are expected to present themselves in one manner and women are expected to act in a different manner. for instance men are expected to be strong rational aggressive independent competitive and insensitive. women in contrast traditionally have been expected to be weak emotianl receptive dependent cooperative and emotional
what is the difference between patriacrchy and matriarchy?which is more common?
partiarchy is a form of social organization in which men dominate women through control of the economic cultural and political institutions of a society. in contrast matriarchies are a form of social organization in which women dominate men through control of the major soical institutions. patriarchies are much more common historically than matriarchies. the united states is largely a patriarchal society.
what is the relationship between differential socialization and gender roles?
there are different gender roles for men and women. these different roles are learned through socialization. in this context differential socialization refers to the process of raising boys and girls differently because of the different roles each is expected to play as an adult. families tend to encourage more aggressive behavior in boys. girls recieve different types of toys and clothing than do boys. peers transmit gender sterotypes to girls differently devoting more time energy and attention to boys than to girls. this reinforces the sterotype that boys are more importantn than girls. the media transmit different images about what it means to be male and female frequently portraying men in positions of dominance and women in positions of submissiveness. the different messages that boys and girls recieve from these agents of socialization serve to inculcate and reinforce the socially expected gender roles
why do sociologists consider women to be a minority group
a minority group is any group that recieves less than its proportionate share of valuable social resources such as good jobs leisure time and fair pay. sociologists consider women to be a minority group for several reasons. first reflective of the patriarchal nature of social organization men treat women unequally. second women experience several gaps in the way they are treated relative to the way men are treated. the wage gap regfers to the fact that women recieve less pay then men, earning approximately 75% of what men do for similar work. women also experience a leisure gap. even though most men and women now work full time outside the home women are expected to fullfill the traditional role of homemaker when they return home often while the husbands relax. women do more of the domestic chores than men. women also experience occupational sex segregation into subordinate jobs such as secretary nurse and teacher as compared to executive doctor and principal. all o fthese forms of unequal treatmetn lead sociolgists to consider women a minority group.
how does the functionalist perspective account for the existence of gender inequality
there are two ways in which the functionalist perspective accounts for the existence of gender inequality. the theory of complementarity argues that men and women perform different roles because it is functionally necessary for social stbility and survival. men play instrumental roles such as acquiring economic resouces and women perform expressive roles such as childrearing and homemaker. the human capital model explains womens subordinate position in th labor market as a result of the choices that men and women make. this explaniation states that women choose employment in low age and low skill jobs such as waitress or retail sales clerk. it also states that women choose to exit and enter the workforce more frequently than men (often for childrearing pruposes). these choices limit the earning potential of women relative to men.
how does the conflict perspective explain gender inequality
conflict explanations argue gender inequality is caused by partiarchy and male use of their greater physical economic and political power to protect the privileged postion they occupy in society. orthodox marxist explanations view male control over economic resources as a key way in which men restrict women's opportunities and freedoms gender roles are viewed as serving to legitimate male domination.
what is feminism?describe the types of feminist approaches toward and solutions for gendre inequality.
feminism is the belief that men and women are equal and should be treated equally. there are three ways in which feminism explains gender inequality. liberal feminists accept the organizatinof society but argue that women should be accorded equal opportunity equal treatment and reproductive freedom. socialist feminists believe that gender inequality is a result of capitalist forms of economic organization. a socialist revolution is believed necessary to free women from partriarchaial subordination. radical feminists believe that liberal and socialist feminsts do not go far enough to eradicate gender inequality. in this view gender inequality is rooted in the very notion of gender. to eliminate such inequality the notion of gender itself must be eliminated. doing this would involve the use of new reproductiv etechnologies that would free women form the childbearing role. this would eliminate the basis for gender distinctions and would hence lead to an end of male domination.
activity theory
the concept that a high level of personal activity increases the life satisfaction of older people
age stratification
the unequal distribution of wealth prestige and power at different stages of the life course
ageism
discrimination and prejudice against a person or group on the basis of age
caregiving
the unpaid and informal care provided to the elderly by relatives and friends
disengagement theory
the concept that society imporves its functioning by disengaging people from positions of responsibility as they age
gerontology
the study of aging and the elderly
what is gerontology? why is the study of gerontology probably more important today than it was 100 years ago?
gerontology is the study of the elderly and of aging. it is more important to study today to understand the aging process and how it affects people because the percentage of people aged 65 or over is 3x's greater today than it was 100 years ago.
what is age stratification? provide examples of age stratification in american society
age stratification regers to the unequal distribution of wealth power and prestige at different stages of the life course. in the united states teh elderly are no longer respected the way they were 100 years ago. today the prestige one recieves and the quality of ones life both decline after age 65. american culture now places a premium on youth and youthfullness. older people are removed from positions of authority when they retire. this is more prevalent in business as opposed to politics. they also become more socially isolated when they retire, their spouses die, their children move away, and their same age peers are also experiencing declining health and abilities. additionally the likelihood of being poor increases after age 55. unequal treatment by age is not confined just to the elderly. young people also experience unequal access to social resources. they are not allowed to legally drive until age 16 they canno vote until age 18 and they cannot leagally drink alcohol until age 21. in additon access to the best jobs is largely restricted until the mid twenties or beyond
what is disengagement theory?with which sociological perspective is it associated?
diengagement theory is associated with the functinalist perspective. this theory states that aging and death threaten to disrupt the functioning of society. in response social processes and practices such as mandatory retirement ages attempt to disengage the elderly from positions of responsibility in order to maintain the smooth and stable functioning of society
what is activity theory? with which sociological perpective is it associated?how does it differ from the disengagement theory?
activity theory is associated with the symbolic interactionist perspective. in contrast to the functionalist perspective this theory focuses on the needs of the elderly themselves rather than on the needs of society. fromj this view disengagement from customary social roles (such as work roles) can be damaging to the elderly if these roles are not replaced with new roles to perform. activity theory stresses that a high level of personal activity and involvement serves to increase the personal satifaction experienced by older people. as they become disengaged from certain roles the elderly should seek out new forms of activity to engage in such as recreation travel and community involvement in order to reamin happy and satisfied
how does the conflict perspective explain age stratificfation
fromthe conflict perspective the profit motivation of capitalist economies facilitates the declining wealth power and prestige of the elderly in society. this decline begins even before retirement as employer replace older higher paid workers with younger lower paid workers as a way to reduce labor costs and boost profits. after they retire this perspecitve argues that the elderly are seen as economically unproductive because they are no longer working. in a profit oriented society this means they come to be viewed as worthless
bilateral descent
the tracing of kinship and passing along of inheritance through both women and men
descent
the manner in which members of a society trace their kinship across generations
divorce
the practice of dissolving a marriage
egalitarian family
a family in which both partners share power and authority equally
endogamy
marriage within the group or social category
family
a cooperative arrangement in which people live together with commitment form a economic unit and care for any newborns and children.
family of orentation
the family one is born or adopted into and where childhood socialization occurs
family of procreation
a family one forms often with another adult by having or adopting children
homogamy
the practice of marrying people whith whom one shares similar characteristics or interests such as age education race or ethcicity and or social class
kinship
a social network of people linked by marriage adoption or common ancestry
marriage
a legally recognized and or socially approved relationship that involves two or more people carries with it certain rights and obligations and usually involves sexual activity
matriarchal family
the family where authority resides in the eldest female who holds power over other family members
matrilineal descent
the practice of tracking kinship and passing along inheritance through women
matrilocality
the practive of living with or near the wife's parents
monogamy
a marriage uniting two people in a sexually exclusive realtionship
nuclear family
a family composed of one or two parents and their dependent children
patriarchal family
a family in which authority resides in the eldest male who holds power over other family members
patrilineal descent
the practice of tracign kinship and passing slong inheritance tghough men.
patrilocality
the practice of living with or near the husband parents
polyandry
the marriage of one woman to two or more men
polygamy
a marriage that unites three or more people.
polygyny
the marriage of one man to two or more women
compare and contrast families in preindustiral and industrial societies
preindustrial families were characterized by extended family configurations that were patriarchal and practiced patrilineal descent. patriarchal families are those in which authority resides in the eldest male (usually the father) who holds power over other family members. patrilineal descent is the practice of tracing kinship and passing along inheritance through men. families in industrial societies are more likely to be nuclear families that are more egalitarian (those in which both partners share authority and power equally) and practice bilateral descent ( the practive of tracing kinship and passing along inheritance through both men and women) nuclear families are smaller than extended families in that they contain only one or two parents and their dependent children
explain the difference between a family of orientationand a family of procreation
the family of orientation is the family into which one is born or adopted and socialized. the family of procreation is a family that one forms often with another adult by having or adopting children. one may not choose ones family of orientation but one usually chooses ones family of procreation
in a martriarchal society what patterns of residence authority and kinship would exist.
a matriarchal society is a form of social organization in which women dominate men as a result of their control of key social institutions. in a matriarchal society one would expect to find patterns of residence where the family lives near the wifes parents (matrilocality). Authority and power would be concentrated in the eldest female in the family usually the mother. this is termed a matriarchal family. finally descent would likely be traced matrilineally (tracing kinship through women)
in a patriarchal society what patterns of residence authority and kinship would exist
a patriarchy is a form of social organization in which men dominate women through control of key social institutions, such as the economy, politics and education. in patriarchal societies one would expect to find patriarchal families in which authority resides in the eldest male (usually the father) who holds power over other family members. these families would practice patrilineal descent which is the tracing of kinship and the passing along of inheritance through men. one might also expect to find patterns of residence wher the family lives near the husband's parents (patrilocality)
what is the difference between endogamy and exogamy?give an example of each
exogamy is the practice of marriage outside of a group or social category. most commonly this means marrying someone outside one's immediate family or kinship network. endogamy is the practicve of marriage within a group or social category. frequently this means marrying someone of the same religion social class or racial or ethnic group
in an egalitarian society what pattern of residence authority and kinship might one find
in an egalitarian society in which mean and women are treated equally bilateral decent and egalitarian families would be expected. bilateral descent is the practie of tracing kinship through both men and women. egalitarian families are those in which both partners share authority and power equally.
according to the funtionalist perspective what functions does the family serve?
according to the functionalist perspective the family performs four functions necessary for social stability and survival. the first is socializaton of children. the family is where children first learn patterns of their culture and develop is a cultural norm that fordibds sexual relations and marriage between certain family members, such as fathers and daughters. this taboo and the obligations of marriage direct that sexual activity can only occur between certain members of the family. families also affect social placement. they confer upon children statuses (positions ) in terms of race, ethnicity, religion, social class, and gender. finally families provide emotional support economic support and care to their members.
how does the conflict perspective assess the role of the family in society
the conflict perspective on the family views the family as a social institiution fundamental to the perpetuatuion of social inequality. patriarchy and patrilineal descent are seen as contributing to the subordination of women limiting their authority and access to economic resources. endogamy directs people to marry within their social class and race or ethnic group. endogamy is thus seen as serving to perpetuate the racial and ethnic hierarchy. as well as to perpetuate the class hierarchy. the class hierarchy is also maintained by the practice of handing down wealth and property within the family.
what is divorce? what factors increase the liklihood of divorce?
divorce is the process of dissolving a marriage. several factors contribute to this failure. often romantic love ( and evel sexual attraction) diminshes after marriage. some choose to pursue the excitement of a new relationship over a relationship in which the inital excitement of romantic love has diminished. divorce is also more common because the stigma once attached to divorce has lessened. the cultural emphasis in the United States on individualism also serves to undermine marriage by pressures strains and conglict that accompany dual income marriages both spouses work outside the home have also contributed to the frequency of divorce. working ouside the home leaves less time and energy for family life. working outside the home also reduces female dependence upon her male spouse for economic support. thereby reducing the need to reamin inunsatisfying marriages. divorce is currently most common among younger couples who marrried after a brief coutship and who experience economic hardship. it is also more common among dual career families and among people who have divorced previously.
animism
the belief that elements of the natural world are infused with a spiritual or life force that has an influence on the rest of the world
church
a larger more bureaucratically organized group that is well integrated into the larger society and whose worship practices are more formalized
cult
a religious organization ouside the dominant religious tradition of a society.
denomination
a religious group that is accommodated by the larger society and accepts religious pluralism
faith
the acceptance of beliefs based upon conviction rather than scientific evidence
monotheism
the belief in and worhip of one god
polytheism
the belif in and worship of two or more gods
profane
the ordinary secular elements of everday life
religion
a system of beliefs and rituals involving the sacred and questions of ultimate meaning
sacred
the supernatural extraordinary aspects of life that inspire reverence and awe.
sect
a smaller religious group that stands apart from the larger society and has broken away from a more formalized religious organization in order to renew what it believes is the true or original faith.
secularization
the historcial decline in the influence of religion and the sacred.
secularization
the historical decline in the influence of religion and the sacred
supernaturalism
systems of thought involving the belief that supernatural forces influence peoples lives
theism
religions that believe in and worship one or more gods
transcendent idealism
systems of though that emphasize the existence of sacred principles of conduct and belief
distinguish between the sacred and teh profane. what is the relationship between faith and the sacred
the profane is the secular realm of ordinary mundane everyday life. the sacred in contrast involves the realm of the supernatural and the extraordinary aspects of life that inspire awe and reverance in people. because the realm of the sacred involves the supernatural the existence of faityh is necessitated. faith is the acceptance of beliefs based upon conviction rather than scientific evidence. a belief in a god is rootede in faith and not upon scientific evidence.
how is theism diffenent from transcendent idealism
theism refers to religions such as christianity that believe in one or more gods. not all religions however believe in a god or gods. transcendent idealism refers to religions and systems of belief that do not posit the existence of one or more gods; instead, they emphasize the existence of sacred principles of conduct and belief such as compassion and truth.
what is religion? what is the relationship between secularization and religion?
religion is a system of beliefs and rituals that involve the sacred. secularization refers to the historical decline in the influence of religion and the sacred in understanding the world around us. thus there is a tension between secularization and religion religious explantions are rooted in the sacred and secualr explanations are rooted in science.
how does religion contribute to the functioning of society.
according to Emile Durkheim religion serves several positive functions for the smooth operation of society. the belief and faith in the sacred provide religious followers with a sense of meaning and purpose in life. because religion involves a shared system of beliefs and rituals these provide the basis for a sense of unity and cohesion within society. finally religions tell their followers the proper and imporper ways to behave. therefore religion is a source of norms and values. the norms regarding what is good or bad and right or wrong function as a form of social control
describe the conflict perspective on religion
the conflict perspective on religion does not view religion as a positive influence in society. instead, this perspective examines the manner in which religion serves to legitimize and promote social inequality in a country. conflict theorists point out that most religions are patriarchal in organization and encourage the submission of women to the will of men. this maintains the gender hierarchy. in addition the enslavement of Africans and the persecution of Native americans were legitimated by the argument that members of those groups were uncivilized heathens because they didn't believe in the Christian concept of God. finally the belief in an afterlife and teh rewards come in that afterlife encourages people to accept their position in this world. this helps to maintain the class hierarchy
how does the symbolic interactionist perspective analyze religion
the symbolic interactionist perspective on religion emphasizes how religious practices and beliefs are socially constructed and reinterpreted through everyday interaction. this perspective also emphasizes the meanings that people attribute to religion and religious practices and symbols in their daily lives. rituals such as daily prayer the reading of religous text and celebrating religious holidays serve to maintain the boundary between the sarced and the profane while also serving as a source of meaning for the practitioners. religion and its norms serve as a reference group for people allowing them to compare their everyday behavior to that expected by their religion. the proliferation of the WWJD bumper stickers and bracelets illustrate how religion can operate as a reference group.
what is a chruch?what is a sect?how do churches and sects differ from each other? what is the relationship between the two?
a church is a relatively large, bureaucratic organization whose worship practices are more formalized. pragyers are done from memory or read from the written page god is seen as remote from peoples daily lives and emotionalism is restrained during worship services. churches tend to attract members from the middle and upper classes. sects are smaller religious groups that have broken away from a more formalized religious organization, such as a church in order to renew and revive what its followers believe is the true and original faith. sects tend to have informal worship servives in which emotionalism is encouraged extemporaneous prayers are made and the followers believe that god is actively involved in the daily lives of members. sects and churches are part of the same religious tradition. as the members of a sect become more economically successful the doctrinal emphasis of the group shifts from the next world and toward this world in order to harmonize the material condition of the majority of its members with its doctrinal emphasis. members who do not experience economic success may no lnger feel religiously fulfilled so they break away to form a new religious organization that revives the origianl faith.
why do people from the lower classes tend to affiliate with sects while people from the upper classes tend to affiliate with churches
people join religious organizations in part to understand their own lives. poor people join sects because sects emphasize that the rewards come in the next life and taht though one may lack material comfort in this world all will be better in the next world. also sects emphasize the presence of a god active in our daily lives. this helps poor people to know that despite their material misery god has not forsaken them. churches on the other hand emphasize the material success is acceptable to god. wealth impedes their ability to enter the after life. in sum people want a religious emphasis and orientation that can be reconciled and harmonized with their worldly situation
what is a cult
a cult is a religious organization that is outside the dominant religious tradition of a society. for instance buddhism scientology and the unification church would all be considered cults in the united states most religions begin as cults
credentialism
a process of evaluation and selection in which the possession of academic credentials is tied to class advantage
cultural captial
socially advantageous values attitudes and abilities
education
the social institution that provides members of a society with important knowledge of their culture and transmits basic job skills and abilities
hidden curriculum
the transmission of certain cultural attitudes and values through the rules structure and activities of school
schooling
the formalized transmission of knowledge and skills under the guidance of specially trained teachers
tracking
channeling students into particualr courses of study believed most appropriate for their abilities
what is the difference between education and schooling
education is a social institution that provides members of a society with important knowledge of their culture and transmits basic job skills. schooling is formalized education and the transmission of kknowledge and skills under the guidance of specially trained teachers. the key difference is that schooling is the formalized and specialized delevery of knowledge and skills whereas education can occur anywhere in the family from the media in church and from our peers among others.
what are the mainfect functions of education
there are four manifest functions (intended and recognized consequences) of education. education and schools are agents of socialization from which children learn socail and political history citizenship skills and job competencies. schools also scialize children through transmission of core cultural values and norms such the work ethic and indivdual responsibility. this helps to integrate people into the dominant culture. a second manifest function is social placement. education prepares people for placement into socially recognized and approved roles. the third manifest functionof schools is social control. by teaching core values like respect for authority obedience and discipline schools shape and constrain the range of behavior that is acceptable. finally schools are souces of cultural innobvation and change. schools investigate new forms of knowledge and new ways of learning and knowing that contribute to the further development of society.
what are the latent functions of education
there are four latent functions (largely unrecognized and unintended consequences) of education. the first is the creation of networks of relationships. in school we meet people who may become our spouse or may be able to help us at some later time with jobs, housing, advice, and other assistance. a second latent function is to restrict one's engagement in certain activities. compulsory education keeps kids from working full time keeps them off the streets and prevents them from engaging in illegal activities. with the growing number of single parent households and dual income families a third latent function of schools is child care. finally because children learn information at school that may be in tension with what they have been taught at home schools contribute to the creation of a generation gap.
how does schooling contribute to the reproduction of the class structure.
schooling contributes to the reproduction of the class hierarchy in four ways: cultural captial the hidden crriculum, unequal school funding and access to higher education. cultural captial refers to socially advantageous values, attitudes, and abilities, such as proper language skills, proper ways of dressing socially approved manners and knowledge of both high and popular culture. cultural capital contributes to obtaining a quality education in part because standarized tests such as the SAT measure cultural capital. children from upper and middle class families are more likely to possess greater amounts of cultural capital meaning they likely will recieve a better education such as college. this differential in possesion of cultura captial contributes to the perpetuation of the class hierarchy. the hidden curriculum consists of certain cultural values such as obedience to authority and conformity that are transmitted through the rules and structuring of schooling. studies show that students from working and lower class families are those most negatively affected because they learn they are expected to submit to the authority of others in the workplace where they will work at less challenging and less rewarding jobs than their more well to do peers. the manner in which schools are funded contributes to the perpetuation of the class hierarchy. because schools are funded locally based upon the value of taxable property students who live in poorer neighborhoods are more likely to attend schools that are poorly funded. recieving less funding means that the quality of the schooling that poor children revieve is likely to be inferior to that received by children who attend schools in middle and upper income neighborhoods. finally college attendance is correlated with income. talented lower income students are less likely to attend college than their comparably talented counterpars from higher income families due to the cost of college. this limits their occupational opportunities and contributes to the perpetuation of the class hierarchy
how does schooling contribute to the reproduction of the race/ethnic hierarchy
schooling reproduces teh racial and ethnic hierarchy in several ways. studies have shown that even when controlling for talent non caucasian students are more likely to be tracked into the less challenging academic programs than whites. this limits their chances of attending colleg (as does the cost of college for many non caucasian students) and gaining occupational opportunities. the unequal manner of funding schools described in the preceding answer also contributes to perpetuating the racial and ethnic hierarchy. fianlly it has been found that the achievement differences between caucasians and african americans increase with each year of schooling. this also suggest that schools reinforce and reproduce the racial and ethnic heirarchy
what is the symbolic interactionsit view of education
the symbolic interactionist view of education emphasizes classroom dynamics and the production of meanings and interpretations. for instance if a teacher perceives some students to be less likely to learn (because of the students social class or color for instance) they may direct less time effort and attention to helping them lear. as a result the child learns less. this is an example of the self fulfilling prophecy. also labeling students as slow learners or overachievers often as a result of IQ tests may lead to students internalizing labels and defining themselbes according to a label.
capitalism
an economic system characterized by the private ownership of natural resouces and income producing property
communism
an ideal politica and economic system characterized by the absence of social classes and a government; all members are socially equal
conglomerates
corporations whose business interests span several industries all owned by the same company
contingent work
part time temporary and subcontracted work that provides the worker with limited pay benefits and opportunities
corporations
large scale formalized organizations that have legal powers separate from those enjoyed by their individual owners.
deprofessionlization
the process whereby certain elements of a profession are eliminated
economy
the social institution that contributes to the maintenance of society by organizing the production distribution and consupmption of goods and services
interlocking directorates
the practice of members of the board of directors of one corporation also holding positions on the boards of directors of other corporations
labor unions
organizations of workers that attempt to improve the working conditions pay and benefits of workers through various means including collective bargaining and strikes
mixed economy
an economic system that combines elements of command economies (socialism) with elements of market economies (capitalism)
occupations
jobs that involve similar skills tasks and responsibilities
oligopoly
the domination of an industry by a few firms
postindustrial economy
an economy based primarily on the production of services and knowledge
primary labor market
the segment of the economy consisting of high paying jobs that offer extensive benefits and advancemetn opportunities
primary sector
involves the extraction of raw materials and natural resources from the environment
professions
prestigious occupations that require advanced training and knowledge
secondary sector
involves the transformation of raw materials and natural resources into finished goods
secondary labor market
the segment of the economy consisting of low paying jobs that provide limited benefits little job security and few advancement opportunites
social democratic system
an economic and political system in which government distribution of some goods and services is combined with private ownership of of some income producing property and is characterized by free elections
socialism
an economic system characterized by public ownership of natural resources and income producing property
tertiary sector
involves the creation and delivery of services
unemployed
status of an out of work person who has actively looked for work in the past thirty days.