Igcse Development Studies

The inability of people to fulfill their basic needs that are essential to living a reasonable quality of life. In monetary terms, it is described as the situation for people who live on less than US$1.25 per day.

The way in which when a family gets caught up in desperate poverty, it becomes increasingly difficult to break out of it and things just get worse.

Basic needs need to be satisfied to break out of it, which can be done in the short term by aid agencies and in the long term with money earned by economic growth.

Gross National Income:

The income from goods and services produced in a country, including its earnings from other parts of the world.

Gross Domestic Product:

The value of goods and services produced in a country in a year.

Millennium Development Goals:

8 goals that were adopted as a global partnership to reduce extreme poverty, hunger and disease, and to promote gender equality, access to education and sustainable development by 2015.

Eradicate Extreme Hunger and Poverty

Achieve Universal Primary Education

Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women

Reduce Child Mortality

Improve Maternal Health

Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Other Diseases

Ensure Environmental Sustainability

Develop a Global Partnership For Development

1A: to halve the proportion of people who's income is less than $1.25 a day

1B: achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people

1C: to halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger

- Educated children are literate and numerate and thereby more likely to get jobs with a good income.

- Education teaches the importance of a balanced diet, hygienic living conditions and disease prevention and so leads to better health.

- A good income means a balanced diet and a clean, weather-proof home can be afforded.

- Educated children are more likely to have careers, marry later and have fewer children.

The passing down of culture and skills from older members of a community to the younger members.

It happens outside of the classroom.

Classroom based education provided by teachers to develop the modern skills needed to work in a rapidly changing world.

The ability to read and write a simple statement, with understanding.

The ability to understand arithmetic.

The ability to do something well in different situations.

- Cost of fees, uniform, etc. (especially for families living in poverty).

- Children are weak from hunger and disease (and cannot walk to school or concentrate).

- There are not enough schools and teachers (especially in remote rural areas).

- Schools are too far away for families with no transport in rural areas.

- Children need to do domestic work/ work on the farm/earn an income.

- Cultural beliefs against girls leaving the home.

- Exclusion of ethnic minorities from schools.

- Children have to act as carers for sick relatives.

- Parents are ignorant of the value of schooling.

- Pregnancy and early marriage.

- Civil wars/ natural disasters .

- Abolition of school fees.

- Provision of enough schools, classrooms, teaching materials, teachers.

-Provision of free school meals.

- Mobile schools such as 'tent schools' in Mongolia.

- Laws to make basic education compulsory.

- Laws that put an end to child marriages and child labour.

- Rewards for families that allow girls to complete primary education.

Government-led projects (as its the highest level authority that makes the decisions and promotes the change.

When the idea itself comes from the community itself and the community takes a major role in making it happen.

- Children miss schooling due to being ill themselves or having to look after family members who are ill.

- Parents cannot look after their family properly or work efficiently on the farm and may lose their jobs.

- Economic production is affected as the workforce is weak or absent.

An estimate of the number of years likely to be lived at birth.

The total number of infants dying before reaching their first birthday rate per 1000 births in a given year.

Primary Health Care

Linked to new-born children.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

Antiretroviral drugs which prevent HIV from spreading.

- Contact with bodily fluids of an infected person

- From mother to child during pregnancy

- Sharing of contaminated needles

- Unprotected sex with an infected partner

- Infected blood transfusions

- Prevention advice in schools, health centres.

- Free/ cheap supply of contraceptives.

- Media advertising.

- ART

- Improved diet and hygiene

- Free testing service

- Target 6A: Have halted by 2015and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS

- Target 6B: Achieve by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need it

- Target 6C: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other diseases

- Mosquito nets

- Insecticide

- Drugs to prevent and treat malaria

- Educating people to ensure water does not collect in areas close to where they live

Treating boys and girls the same so there's no discrimination and both get equal opportunities in all things such as education, work and politics.

Give strength, confidence and authority as well as the ability to have political influence.

The economic, cultural and social difference between men and women.

- They are given more respect in the community

- They are more likely to manage it in a sustainable way by preventing soil erosion and maintaining fertility and thereby produce better quality crops.

- Change the inheritance laws to prevent eviction of women by male relations

- Allow women to register land in their own name and so access loans

- Make agricultural services available to women as well as men

- Allow women to take places on Rural Development Boards

Farmer Field and Life Schools:

A global partnership that provides life skills and knowledge in agricultural production and nutrition to both men and women who's lives have been affected by the civil war in Uganda.

- Less time for education, income-earning activities, rest and community affairs

- They are too tired to concentrate at school or work in the fields

- Heavy buckets cause injury and stress to their weak bodies

- They are fearful of being attacked

- They often don't apply for promotion because they know it will be given to a man instead

- Wages are often lower for same work done but women are reluctant to complain in fear of being fired

- Poorer working conditions and employment rights

- Sexual harrassment

The way in which women find it more difficult to gain promotions than men even if they have the same skills and experience. It's the unseen barrier that prevents women from moving up the career ladder.

- Job sharing

- Part-time working and flexi-time

- Mobile technology and video conferencing to enable home-working

- Affordable and reliable child care, creches at work and care for the elderly

- Maternity benefits where a proportion of wages are paid for a number of weeks while on leave

- Networking groups for support

- Laws to prohibit gender discrimination in the workplace.

- Reduces poverty and hunger (MDG1)

- Increases the chances of their children being educated (MDG2)

- Increases confidence to influence decisions made in the home (MDG3)

- Improves basic knowledge of disease prevention (MDG4)

- Reduces chances of early marrage and increases knowledge of family planning (MDG5)

- Combats spread of HIV/AIDS and other diseases (MDG 6)

- Encourages sustainable development (MDG 7)

- Ensure girls go to school and move on for secondary and further education

- Provide free or cheap schooling

- Ensure the curriculum is relevant for girls' needs and that they are allowed to take subjects originally reserved for boys

- Encourage girls to become doctors, lawyers and other jobs less often associated with women to inspire future generations of learners

- Lack of knowledge of care required during pregnancy such as adequate diet

- Childbirth and unhygienic conditions with no midwife

- Lack of transport to maternity facility

- Lack of emergency facilities to deal with complications

- Early pregnancy due to child marriages

- Lack of family planning means body has little time to recover between pregnancies

- Men do not allow their wives to attend clinics

- Violence from men if they're unable to do domestic duties during pregnancies

- Extra stress on a weak body already malnourished or suffering from HIV/AIDS

- Provide pre and post natal care

- Provide family planning advice in local clinics that can easily be accessed by all women

- Readily available counselling on methods of HIV/AIDS and other disease prevention

- Laws to stop violence against women

- Laws to increase the age at which children are allowed to marry

Measures being taken to make sure women have much better chances of being elected

- Some seats in elected assemblies being reserved for women

- Certain percentage or quota of a list of candidates being exclusive for women

- All women being shortlisted in selected constituencies

- Lighting: for safer streets, extension of working hours

- Water Pumps: reduces time and energy collecting water

- Transportation: increases access to markets, health care as well as education and social activities, carries heavy loads

- Media Technologies: allows information sharing, raises awareness

- how the country's natural and human resources are used

- how the country's money is spent

- the laws by which the people are governed

- how the country's environment is protected

- whether or not development will be sustainable

Capable of being continued without permanent damage to the environment

- Capitalist

- Socialist

- Communist

A system based on private ownership that relies on private ownership rather than state control

A system based on public ownership and government control over the allocation of resources

An economy that is managed and often highly planned by the state and based on common ownership

- More money will be spent on weapons, training of the army and in intelligence gathering, leading to less money for development.

- Facilities that contribute to higher living standards can be destroyed by bombs

- Thousands of people die

- Malnourishment and spread of disease in rural areas

- Imports are no longer possible due to destroyed airports

- People are constantly in fear

- People lose their livelihoods and economic production comes to a halt

- Children are unable to go to school and literacy rates drop

The power to make decisions and give orders

- Monarchs & Chiefs

- Colonialism

- Dictatorship

- Democracies

The occupation of another country in order to exploit it economically

Native, or a person born in a particular place

- The country's natural wealth and people were exploited in order to export minerals and crops to supply the industries and populations of the home nation.

- Native people were forced to pay taxes and worked in mines and fields for low wages.

- Natives didnt consider the colonial government as legitimate, and resentment and opposition grew and became organized into groups who wanted to run the country themselves.

- However, roads, railways and schools were built to serve the colonists and these are still in use in many countries

Being free from outside control

A war between civilians of the same country

- No regular elections are held, but scam elections where people are bullied to vote and opposing parties are present only in name may be held in order to look legitimate to the rest of the world.

- Dictators and their advisors draw up the laws and hold themself above them to do as they please. Fair trials are uncommon and people imprisoned without charge. Military force is used to keep control.

- Human rights are lacking citizens' lives are controlled. Theres no freedom of speech and the media is tightly controlled.

- Dictators aren't accountable to the people they exert power over the people by force.

Required to prove that actions are reasonable

The process of voting

Willingness to act dishonestly for personal gain

A system of government with one person having complete power

- Government by the will of the people through elections

- The rule of law

- The exercise of human rights and fundamental freedoms

- Elections are held with adults having a secret ballot.

- Anyone can form a political party and stand for election

- There is no threat of violence to anyone to vote in a particular way or inaccurate counting of votes.

- Everyone is equal before the law and all citizens have a right to trial and an independant judiciary ensures this

- Human rights and fundamental freedoms

- If people are unhappy with the government, they can vote for a new one in the next elections.

Judges and trials not influenced by the government.

- Freedom of speech for all people and the media

- Freedom of association

- The right to hold a peaceful demonstration

- Freedom of movement

- Minority groups have the same freedoms as everyone else

These are formed to represent people with similar beliefs and outlook and may be based upon social class, ethnic groups or different ideas about the role of the state in people's lives.

Democracies may have a monarch as the Head of State such as the Queen of England who holds no real power, but makes sure constitution is followed, or in a republic, a president, like in the United States.

A document that defines the function and administration of an organisation and the rules which its members must follow.

- Encouragement for companies to set up factories

- Laws to limit logging in the tropical forest

- Supply of clean water to all areas

- Quotas for women in parliament

((These National Plans are likely to include projects that address the MDGs both directly and indirectly))

Local or regional councils and assemblies make decisions on local planning issues and implement government policies at a local level. They draw up Local Plans and are usually responsible for providing local services such as waste collection.

Less Economically Developed Country

More Economically Developed Country

- A More industrialized economy with manufactured exports

- A mainly urban population

- A move towards democracy

- Slow population growth, or population decreasing

- Advanced infrastructure

- Higher quality housing with clean water water and good sanitation

- A larger variety of foodstuffs

- Higher energy consumption

- Adequate social security payments and pensions

- Greater gender equality

- Greater human rights and fairer treatment of minority groups

- Better access to new technology

- A higher LE and lower IMR

- A larger proportion of students in secondary and tertiary education

Newly Industrialised Country;

ranked between developed and developing nations and are characterized by rapid industrial growth

Brazil, Russia, India and China;

the fastest growing economies

Human Development Index;

A measure of development that combines literacy rates, school enrollment, life expectancy and GNP per person to measure a country's level of development. ((It has a maximum rank of 1.0))

Useful services such as piped water, electricity

A system that helps to meet the needs of the people

Something that does not fit the general pattern

- International migration

- Climate change

- Water supplies

- Soil degradation

- Loss of habitats and biodiversity

- Human trafficking

- HIV/AIDS

- Financial Instability

- Terrorism and war

- Natural disasters

- Rapidly growing population

- Increased standard of living is changing 'wants' to 'must-haves'

A limited supply of materials that will eventually run out

Activities that use land and sea to produce food and extract natural resources

Industries that process raw materials and manufacture goods

Provision of services to the rest of the economy and the people of the country

Most people live and work in the primary sector. Crops and minerals are exported due to lack of industrial production. Low prices for these mean there is little income to invest in secondary and tertiary industries.

Processing and manufacturing industries are set up so a larger workforce moves to the secondary sector. Agriculture becomes mechanized, some resources are exhausted and rural to urban migration takes place. Services develop to support the economy and money from exports is available for public welfare services.

Automation of factory work and increased demand for services with improved living standards leads to a larger tertiary workforce. Manufacturing plants are often moved to other countries with lower costs. Governments have tax revenues which they spend on welfare and construction projects that employ large amounts of workers.

The inputs needed to produce something that will generate economic gain or provide a service;

- Land

- Labour

- Capital

- Enterprise

The physical land and natural resources needed for production such as fish, mines, forests, etc.

Human resources in the form of skilled or unskilled workers

Man made and financial resources needed for production such as machinery, computers, or personal investment

The ability to combine all the factors of production in a successful way

Where large amounts of labour are required

Where large amounts of machinery and capital are invested into the business

If a waste product of production can be used, it is called a by-product

Concentrates on one particular product or activity

Close to the supply of raw materials to cut transport and fuel costs. More-so applicable to industries using perishable goods

Where an increase in production leads to a reduction in the average cost per unit produced;

-Financial

-Managerial

-Marketing

-Purchasing

A good that is of no use until it is further processed. These are generally producer goods

When work is shared out so different workers do different jobs in the production process that suit their level of ability and talent;

When people only do what they are specialised in

- Reduce the use of non-renewable resources

- Increase the use of recycled materials

- Use renewable resources wisely

- Working conditions in factories

- Child labour and discrimination in the workplace

- Pollution and waste disposal

- Easy to enter even if unskilled

- Self-employment with only family help

- Low and unreliable income

- Long working hours

- No regulations or legal protection

- Small scale

- No tax paid to government

Bring goods and services into a country from another country

Send goods and services to another country for sale

The currency of other countries used for trade

Raw materials such as fuels and other minerals as well as agricultural products

The difference between a country's imports and exports

If a country's imports are greater than its exports

If a country's exports are greater than its imports

When the a country's currency is reduced in value compared with other industries

It makes exports cheaper for other countries, so the amount of exports increases; and imports more expensive, leading to a reduction in the amount of imports

A new form of dependence of a developing country on a developed country;

Economic dependence after independence as developed countries continue to influence politics, society, the environment and the economy of their former economies

A trade area within which goods can be traded with no quotas or import tariffs imposed at customs

A physical limit to the amount of goods allowed to be imported into a country

A tax on imports

The value of a currency for the purpose of converting it to another

A single company controls the supply of or trade in a particular product

An organisation that enables farmers and workers in developing countries to get a fair price for their crop.

A two-sided loan such as money lent by one government to another

A many-sided loan such as money lent by international groups

Money charged to the loan as payment for the money lent

When a debt becomes so large that the country has no hope of ever paying it back

- Large loans were offered by banks at low interest rates

- Large loans were offered by foreign governments in return for the right to exploit minerals

- Rise in interest rates

- Low prices for agricultural exports

- Rise in oil prices

- New loans taken out to pay interest on the old ones

- Corrupt rulers borrowed large amounts to build palaces

- Global financial crisis reduces exports as countries cut back on what they buy

Instead of developing new industries to export goods and building new schools or providing clean water supplies , money is used to pay off the debt

- Reduce imports (imports are needed to produce exports)

- Produce the manufactured goods that are otherwise imported (Requires finance, and MNCs)

- Increase exports (Exploitation of resources by MNCs)

- Reduce spending on healthcare, education, etc (affects poor people the most)

- Increase production of cash crops (Reduces land for food and needs imported fertilizers)

- Devalue the currency (Makes imports more expensive)

- Change loan conditions so longer payback time (The debt will continue to grow)

- Take on another loan to pay back the previous one (The country's debt gets bigger)

A reduction in the amount that is to be repaid

- Political: more government concentration on the economy and living standards

- Environmental: less need to exploit natural resources to pay off debt

- Social: more money available for schools, clinics

- Economic: Infrastructure can be constructed to encourage economic growth

- Humanitarian: poverty is reduced

Loans that were given:
- irresponsibly with no thought as to how they could be paid back

- for expensive projects that were of little use

- to corrupt dictators

- To undertake measures to improve the living standards of the people

- To provide infrastructure to encourage industries whose exports will help to pay off debt and stimulate the economy

Expertise and skills such as those used by engineers, doctors, etc. and equipment such as mechanical diggers and hospital scanners

Be delivered by experienced organisations that know the area in which they are working and have a good record in delivering results.

Be delivered in areas without conflict so that people aren't constantly moving to escape the fighting

- Humanitarian

- Economic

- Political

Aid that has conditions tied to it

- Foreign governments (often to former colonies)

- International agencies ( eg. UNICEF, WHO)

- Charities/NGOs

- Emergency aid at times of natural disaster

- Infrastructure developments to improve living conditions

- Solutions to problems over the longer term (such as soil erosion)

- Funds can be used wrongly due to corruption

- Funds may be spent on large projects that only benefit a few people in a limited area

- Large projects may cause social and environmental problems

- People may become lazy and rely on hand-outs

- Governments depend on foreign governments for infrastructure instead of public funds

- Aid projects may include technology which cannot be maintained

- Aid may be used to purchase weapons

Foreign Direct Investment;

The investment brought by MNCs

Multi National Companies which operate in several countries

By offering:

- Low tax rates or even tax 'holidays' for a number of years

- Few laws to protect the environment

- Relaxed labour laws and absence of trade unions

- Free trade zones with no tariffs to reduce import costs.

- High employment for locals

- Skills learnt

- Export of goods earns money to pay for imports

- People have money to spend on goods, education, etc. which increases demand for services, providing further employment

- Bigger choice of goods to buy

- Taxes for government from the MNC's profits and workers' wages

- Revenues for governments can be spent on improving infrastructure

- Industry is usually capital intensive (so no jobs)

- Many skilled workers are brought in from oversees

- Profits go out of the country and many components are imported

- Wages are very low for long hours and poor working conditions cause bad health

- Goods are too expensive for locals

- Low taxes or tax free due to competition from other countries

- Corrupt governments will not use the money to reduce poverty

An investment leads to further spending and income and so has additional effects and benefits

Production for the purpose of selling goods abroad

Special Economic Zone;

Areas of where roads, energy and water supply, etc. are all provided in countries with generally poor infrastructure in hopes of attracting MNCs

International influence on the development of business and trade links worldwide with the aid of telecommunications

Transferring any part of the work of a company to another organisation somewhere else

-Containerisation (transportation is easier, and thereby cheaper because goods are in one standardised container)

- Electronic tracking and billing

- The Birth Rate

- The Death Rate

- Immigration

- Emmigration

The total increase in a country's population over a period of time, generally a year

Birth Rate;

The amount of live babies born per year

Death Rate;

The amount of deaths per year

The number of people entering a country to live

The number of people leaving a country to live elsewhere

The difference between the BR and the DR (it can be both positive and negative)

The inhabitants of a country suddenly increasing in number

An official count or survey of a population

Young and old people who are not economically active and rely on support from others (0-14 and 65+ y/olds)

People who are economically active and earn and income (15-64 y/olds)

A graphical representation that shows the population structure of a country in terms of gender and age groups.

- Wide base due to high BR

- Narrow at the top due to high DR and low life expectancy

- Wider for young dependents, meaning high dependency ratio

- Little family planning and education in birth control

- Lack of contraceptive use due to unavailability, high prices, or cultural/religious beliefs against it

- Children are needed to work at home, on farms to earn money

- Children are needed to look after the elderly in lack of pensions

- Lack of education and therefore careers for women

- Traditional beliefs that girls are ready to marry at very young ages

- Large families indicate male virility and enhance prestige in the community

- High IMR means that families have many children, in the hope that some survive.

The average number of children that women have

- Allow women to be educated so they have careers, leading to later marriages and less children; and they wont have to depend on children for money later on

- Government provided family planning services

- Freely available and cheap contraceptives

- Laws to raise the legal marriage age for girls

- Abolition of child labour

- Laws that make schooling compulsory for both boys and girls

- Improved health care so that there's less need for more children

- Lack of clean water supplies and sanitation

- Inadequate health facilities

- Poor quantity of food and lack of a balanced diet

- Lack of education into disease prevention and healthy living

- HIV/AIDS and other disease epidemics

- War and natural disasters such as draught

- Less wide from bottom due to falling birth rate

- Wider middle and above due to rapidly falling DR

- Wider top due to longer LE

- Wide from the middle due to low dependency ratio

- Government policies to increase family planning education and knowledge of birth control

- Availability of low cost contraception

- Increased empowerment of women through education

- Reduction in the IMR

- Abolition of child labour/improved technology on farms

- Narrow base due to low BR

- Wide top due to low DR

- Relatively wide top also means high LE

- Relatively large top and bottom, meaning high dependancy ratio in comparison

- Higher financial burden on working population/raised taxes

- Time off work for caring duties

- Less innovative workforce/ difficulty in adapting to new technology

- Influx of foreign workers

- MNCs less likely to be attracted to set up or may move out

- Need for more care homes/ services for the elderly

- Underuse/closure of facilities for the young

- Lack of young consumers to buy goods

- Not enough workers in years to come to support growing number of elderly

- Meals on wheels

- Free TV license

- Reduced fees for learning courses

- Home help with cleaning, shopping

- Day centres for social activities

- Reduced tax rate

- Financial advice

- Help with heating bills

- Free bus pass

- Home nursing care

The number of people living per square km

An increase in the proportion of people living in towns

A system where land is shared between members of the community

A large commercial farm often owned by companies and growing on crop for export

A society in which men hold the power and land is passed down to male children

- High population density (each small dwelling may house more than 10 people)

- The people make their own dwellings from whatever scrap materials they can find

- People are from many different ethnic groups

- Crime rates and levels of ethnic violence are high

- A large amount of the residents are less than 15 years old

- Few residents can afford electricity but some tap illegally into power-lines

- Some NGOs provide schooling and healthcare

- Many shacks share one hole in the ground for sanitation (toilets cause money to use and are closed at night)

- Waste is dumped on the streets and in the river and waterborne diseases are common

- Most people have no legal right to the land and pay no rent

- Some areas have water standpipes

- numerous informal activities take place but employment in the formal economy is low

- Keeps increasing in size due to high natural increase and continued in-migration

-

Someone who illegally occupies an area of land

- It doesn't want to attract more people to the improved area

- It is too costly

- Most people can't afford to pay for these services

- It would be impossible to provide services for all the new people that arrive each day

- If services are not put in as the city grows, it is far more difficult to add them afterwards

- The houses are often too poorly built to support pipework and drains`

- Upgrading slums is not a government priority

- People are displaced while the work is done

- Homes have to be demolished with no compensation

- New migrants take over the space that is left

- The population of the slum continues to increase

- residents sell their rights to a new dwelling and become squatters somewhere else

- powerful landlords are happy with the situation as it is

- the schemes are 'top down' rather than 'bottom up'

- Women, children and elderly are left to look after the land

- Farms lose their male workers so less crops are grown

- There is more room in dwellings and less mouths to feed

- Women become decision makers and take more responsibility

- Remittances can be used to improve standards of living

- Families are broken up and those left behind may become stressed

- Fewer services are provided in villages

A person who enters a country to live there

A person who leaves a country to live somewhere else

More people enter a country to live there than leave it

More people leave a country to live somewhere else than enter it

- Refugees

- Economic Migrants

- Asylum Seekers

People who are forced to migrate to another country to save their lives or because there is a civil war in their own country

- Pressure is put on the receiving country's government

- Local culture may be diluted and pressure is put on local land and services

- Governments may need to take out loans to provide services

- UN is reluctant to get involved

People who make a personal decision to move which is often based on wanting to improve their standards of living by getting a job or higher income in the other country

- Remittances help increase household income and can be spent on better food, healthcare, education, etc.

- Change in demand for local services

- Change in role for women left with new responsibilities

- New skills, ideas and technologies brought home

- Loss of workers and skills may affect food production on farm

- Break up of families

- Worry for family members if migrant fails to find work or loses contact

- Less pressure on water supplies, food

- More employment for those left behind

- Pressure on schools, health services

- More competition for jobs

- More money from taxes

- Growth of local economy

- Greater use of local services such as shops

- Lower wages

- Ethnic tensions

- Employers fill vacant positions

- New skills and ideas

- Communication problems with different languages

- Community becomes multi-cultural

Growing food for yourself and your family to eat

- Mainly family labour with little capital input

- Simple tools such as hoes, wooden ploughs with oxen

- Small areas of land

- Low yields

- Staple crops such as rice, beans

- Small numbers of different livestock

- Nomandic pastoralism in some areas

A system where people continually move in search of water and grazing for their livestock

Land ownership

They usually have to put their land up as security and therefore risk losing it

- Tenant farmers do not own land

- Communal farmers do not own land

- Many female farmers do not have the rights to own land

Many farmers grow more than one crop and keep livestock so that if one fails, there is something to fall back on. Sometimes, family members work outside of agriculture so they still have an income in years of bad harvests. Farmers build up their assets in good years so that there's something to sell during bad years.

The artificial watering of crops

- Using a bucket to carry water from a stream

- Animals, systems with levels

- Tube wells and pumps

- Micro-dams

- Bulk buying of fertilizers, etc. reduces costs due to economies of scale

- New technology can be shared among members

- Credit is easier to obtain as a member of a group

- Skills can be shared and training given

- Group storage and marketing saves money

- Help for each other at harvest time

- Reduce the need to fell trees by using more efficient stoves or alternative fuels

- Plant trees, especially on slopes

- Reduce the number of livestock kept or use fences to control grazing

- Hire advisers to train farmers in better techniques

- Use bio-engineering such as planting hedges

The situation where a country can produce enough food to feed its own population

- Difficulty in getting farmers to adopt the new techniques

- Higher costs for farmers

- Increased use of fertilisers caused environmental problems

- Fewer types of rice were grown which meant they could be wiped out by pests and disease

- Increased use of pesticides caused environmental problems

Nutrients carried into rivers can cause eutrophication

Can kills harmless or even beneficial insects

It is the difference in yield that researches manage to get from their plots as compared to what farmers get

Can be reduced by:

- Promoting research into variables suitable for the different conditions in different parts of the country

- Providing government advisers to introduce the latest technique to farmers

Genetically Modified Crops;

When plant species are genetically enhanced with beneficial genes of other plants

- The only way to feed the growing world population

- The genes being transferred all occur naturally and are safe for humans

- Use of pesticide and herbicides will be reduced

- GM crops that need less water will provide food in dry areas

- The method used is not very different from conventional breeding methods

- The possibility of increasing nutrient levels and removing allergens

- GM crops could be made with better storage quality

- An increased yield could mean land can be left for wildlife

- Biofuels based on GM plants could replace fossil fuels

- The possibility of developing crops that absorb nitrogen from the air and so fertilize themselves

- Insect resistant plants may harm insects that are beneficial to plants

- New varieties can breed with native plants with unknown effects

- Once a GM variety is released, it cannot be stopped from spreading to wild populations

- Effects on biodiversity may not be known for years

- Human trials have not taken place to determine the effect on people of eating genes that would not normally be eaten

- People may not want to eat GM food but it will be impossible to know what products contain GM strains once they are released into the environment

- Organic farmers are worried that cross-pollination will result in their crops becoming contaminated by GM strains

- A limited variety of crops may be grown which may encourage more pests

A farming system where only 1 type of crop is grown

- Subsistence farming/ fuelwood

- Growth of towns/resettlement

- Mineral extraction

- Infrastructure roads/ dams

- Logging for hardwood timber, pulp and paper

- Grazing land for cattle and commercial plantations

- Many of the poorest people depend upon their local wild plants and animals for survival and for generations have harvested them in a sustainable way

- Removal of a species can have a negative impact on the food chain

- As a species becomes rarer, they become of greater value to criminal gangs which leads to more of them being hunted

- Releasing billions of tonnes of moisture every day through transpiration some of which is carried to water farmland thousands of miles away.

- Binding the soil and preventing soil erosion with their roots

- Preventing flooding

- Preventing soil degradation by contributions to the nutrient cycle

- Providing homes, medical plants, food and other materials for local communities

- Providing habitats for biodiversity

- Absorbing carbon dioxide

- Payment for environmental services by developed countries to developing countries or by governments to local communities

- Afforestation (the planting of more trees)

- Selective felling, licenses & quotas

- Timber certification system

- National parks

- Controlling illegal loggers

- Increasing the support for the policing of National Parks

- Making and enforcing laws

- Supporting companies that produce timber more sustainably

World Energy Council

- Accessibility; modern energy should be available for everyone

- Availability; supply is reliable and safe

- Acceptability; social and environmental concerns are met

United Nations Environment Program

- Oil companies not following international best practices and ignoring local regulations

- Government agencies lacking the resources and expertise to monitor oil activities and spills

- Local authorities not enforcing regulations

- Illegal operations

- Increased populations

- Increased industrial production

- Pollution from farms, industries and settlements

- Climate change and drought

The water a person uses directly for household use as well as that used to produce the food they eat and the clothes they wear

- Natural vegetation and biodiversity destroyed to build airports, hotels

- Wildlife distributed and cultural sites eroded by large numbers of visitors

- Loss of culture due to tourists bringing in new ideas/clothing/customs

- Lack of respect for local traditions

- Overuse of resources

- MNCs run hotels and profits go abroad

- Mass produced, cheap souvenirs imported

- Visual impact of hotels

- Exclusive use of facilities for tourists

- Rubbish and human waste causes pollution

- Cruise ships and airports cause visual, noise and air pollution

- Natural areas have a value with ecotourism

- Restricted areas and licenses for responsible guides, promotion of other attractions

- Traditions promoted as tourist attraction

- Education of tourists in local culture

- Notices to conserve water in hotels

- Small scale businesses run by local people

- Traditional craft industry encouraged

- Regulations to restrict height and design of hotels

- Local use of facilities at off-peak times

- Business links between hotels and local producers to increase the market for farmers and fishermen

- Limited tourist numbers reduce pollution

- Limited arrivals due to high prices

- Other sectors of an economy may be neglected as investment is focused on the sector that is believed to bring in the most income

- Fashions in holidays tend to change and if people decide they want a different sort of holiday, hotels and attractions will be left empty and major monetary losses will take place

- Natural disasters and unstable political situations can easily change the flow of tourists

An economic activity that contributes to, rather than exploits, the natural and cultural features of an area. Local communities are involved rather than foreign tourist operators and as they earn income so it improves their quality of life.

Gases that trap which trap heat in the atmosphere

- Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide

- Livestock produce methane

- When forests are burnt, the carbon dioxide stored inside them is burnt

- Warmer seas expand and cause sea levels to rise

- Melting ice in the Arctic and ice caps in Antarctica and Greenland cause sea levels to rise

- Low lying coasts and islands such as the Maldives may be submerged

- Extreme weather events such as cyclones in Bangladesh and droughts in Somalia may become more severe

- People will become displaced from their homelands

- Food production will be affected such as growing wheat in Russia

- Species may be unable to adopt and will migrate or die

- Diseases such as malaria could spread

- Rainforests such as the amazon could suffer as rainfall patterns change

- Climate Change Act which sets a target for reduction in greenhouse gases by 2050

- Promotion of the use of low carbon fuels, nuclear power and renewable energy

- Promotion of energy conservation

- Research into new technologies such as carbon capture (the carbon dioxide emitted from coal and oil-fired power stations would be captured and piped underground for safe storage, perhaps in old oil wells)

- Emission trading schemes (companies are allowed a certain amount of carbon dioxide. If they produce less than this, they can sell their credit to a company which has gone over it's limit)

The amount of greenhouse gases emitted by the actions of a person in using fossil fuels

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation;

A system where tropical countries are paid to preserve their forests and payment is higher than the economic benefits of chopping them down

When sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides are emitted into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burnt and then dissolve in water droplets in clouds and fall as acid rain

- Lakes become acidic and fish die which impacts the food chain and fishermen's livelihoods

- Crops become stressed and weak and so cannot fight of pests easily and die

- Trees often lose their leaves and die

- Acids leach the nutrients such as potassium out of the soil which reduces its fertility

- Stonework on buildings and statues is attacked and crumbles and tourism suffers

- Toxic metals are dissolved out of soils and enter water supplies

Large amounts of rain in a short period of time, deforestation

Unusual climatic conditions, climate change

Movement of earth's tectonic plates

Warm oceans generating violent storms

Provision for a possible future event

- Increase equipment for search and rescue operations

- Set up early warning systems to notify people

- Arrange for the coordination of the relief effort

- Build a system of dams and embankments to try to control the river

- Dredge the river bed and channels to make more space for the water

- Remove incompetent local officers and reduce corruption

- Stop illegal deforestation

- Much of existing water and sanitation supplies are washed away

- Many health services and schools are destroyed

- Girls become increasingly at risk of being married at an early age because then there would be less people to feed in the family

- Child labour becomes more of a problem as people have lost everything

- Food has to be imported as crops have been ruined and industries trying to export goods find that communication lines have been damaged