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86 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Osmoregulation
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regulating the specific gravity (amount of dissolved substances in the blood) - involves regulating water levels and ions
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Kidney
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bean-shaped organ located retroperitoneally (outside peritoneum)
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Renal artery
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brings blood into kidney
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Renal cortex
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outside of kidney
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Renal medulla
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inside of kidney
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Renal pelvis
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expanded section of ureter that receives urine from kidney
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Ureter
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carries urine to urinary bladder
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Urethra
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carries urine from bladder to outside of body (in males, it combines with the vas deferans of the reproductive tract to form the urogenital canal)
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Mammalian Urinary system
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-Kidney
-Renal artery -Renal cortex -Renal medulla -Renal pelvis -Ureter -Urethra |
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Nephron
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functional unit of kidney
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Parts of Nephron
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-Glomerulus
-Bowman's capsule -Proximal convoluted tubule (cortex) -Loop of Henle (medulla) -Distal convoluted tubule (cortex) -Collecting duct (cortex and medulla) |
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Glomerulus
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bunch of capillaries - blood pressure forces liquid out of the blood and into Bowman's capsule - cells stay behind, liquid called glomerular filtrate
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Bowman's capsule
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expanded proximal end of the uriniferous tubule
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Proximal convoluted tubule (cortex)
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reabsorbs some water and NaCl
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Loop of Henle (medulla)
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reabsorb glucose, amino acids, vitamins, etc. via active transport and create a hyperosmotic interstitial fluid - see below. Unique to mammals and some birds.
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Distal convoluted tubule (cortex)
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reabsorb water, actively secrete hydrogen, potassium, drugs, salts. Nitrogenous waste left in urine
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Collecting duct (cortex and medulla)
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transport urine to renal pelvis
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180 l of water leaves blood and enters uriniferous tubule per day, there are only 5 liters of blood and 1-2 liters of urine are produced per day. What happens to the rest of the water?
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Proximal convoluted tubule - pumps Na+ ions into interstitial fluid, Cl- follows which draws out water - 2/3 of water in glomerular filtrate is thus immediately returned to blood, but that still leaves us losing 60l of water per day.
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Loop of Henle
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Proximally = descending loop, distally = ascending loop
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Descending loop
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permeable to water but not NaCl - water leaves
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Ascending loop
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permeable to NaCl but not water, Na+ ions actively pumped out drawing out Cl-
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Interstitial fluid now........
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..........hyperosmotic, that is; saltier than fluid in uriniferous tubule
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Distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
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water permeable, so water leaves urine to fix osmotic imbalance
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Regulation - antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
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when an animal needs to conserve water, the posterior pituitary releases ADH which increases the number of water channels in the plasma membranes so that more water is reabsorbed
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Nitrogenous waste Fact #1
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Amino acids have nitrogen in them
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Nitrogenous waste Fact #2
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When amino acids are catabolized for energy, ammonia (NH3) is produced. Ammonia is very toxic.
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Nitrogenous waste Fact #3
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Bony fishes and larval amphibians secrete ammonia from the gills
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Nitrogenous waste Fact #4
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Cartilaginous fishes, adult amphibians, and mammals convert ammonia to the much less toxic urea for excretion
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Nitrogenous waste Fact #5
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Reptiles, birds, and insects convert ammonia to uric acid which is not very soluble in water, so it precipitates out and can be eliminated with little loss of water
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Nitrogenous waste Fact #6
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mammals produce some uric acid which is converted by an enzyme called uricase into the more soluble allantoin. Humans, apes, and Dalmatians are the only mammals to lack this enzyme and must secrete uric acid. Gout is an accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joints.
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Sex
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combination of sperm and egg
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Parthenogenesis
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(virgin birth) - common in inverts but not verts. In verts, usually parthenogenic species arise via hybridization producing an all female species. Females still require sperm to activate the eggs, but no recombination occurs (some teid lizards, some fishes)
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Hermaphroditism
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-Protogyny (first female)
-Protandry (first male) -Sequential - both male and female at the same time |
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Protogyny
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(first female) - in species where males defend territories, it is good to be large when male - Bluehead wrasse
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Protandry
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(first male) - even a small male can produce enough sperm to inseminate any female he come is contact with, but a large female can produce more eggs than a small one, so better to be female when large - groupers
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Sequential
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both male and female at the same time - common in inverts, not common in verts, except the hamlet fish (a type of grouper). Most have to fertilize others
III. Sex determination |
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Sex determination for Mammals
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Males XY, females XX
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Sex determination for Birds
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Males XX, females XY
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Sex determination for Insects
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many different systems
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Sex determination for most fishes, amphibians, and reptiles
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environmental determinism - depends on temperature
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____________ is the default sex, something must be added to make the animal _____________
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female, male
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Estrus
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when females are sexually receptive - in most species this is the only time when sex will occur - estrous cycle
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Changes in ________________ and ________________ from the anterior pituitary cause egg cell development and hormone secretion in the ovaries
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follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), lutenizing hormone (LH)
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Menstrual cycle
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similar to estrous cycle but found only in humans and apes - females shed inner lining of uterus and may engage in sex at any time during cycle
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Induced ovulation
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rabbits and cats - ovulate only after sex which makes them very fertile
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Male reproductive system
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Testes, Scrotum, Epididymis, Vas deferans, Prostate, Bulbourethral gland, Penis, Spermatogenesis
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Testes
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Seminiferous tubules, interstitial tissue
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Seminiferous tubules
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produces sperm
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interstitial tissue
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produces testosterone
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Scrotum
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outpocketing of coelom into which testes descend. Keeps the testes at 34°C vs. 37°C which is better for sperm production in humans
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Epididymis
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receive sperm and transfer to vas deferans
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Vas deferans
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(ejaculatory duct) - takes sperm out of body - in mammals it joins with the urethra at the prostate gland to form the urogenital canal
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Prostate
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contributes 60% of bulk of semen
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Bulbourethral gland
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secrete a fluid that lines urogenital canal and lubricates the tip of the penis
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Penis
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intromittent organ; Corpora cavernosa, Corpora spongiosum, Erection
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Corpora cavernosa
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two columns of erectile tissue along dorsal side
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Corpora spongiosum
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one column of erectile tissue along ventral side
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Erection
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blood flows into erectile tissue which compresses the veins so that blood cannot leave. Many animals with a bone (baculum) that aids
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Ejaculation
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release of approximately 5 ml of semen containing 300 million sperm (1 % of semen). Males with 20 million sperm/ml are considered sterile
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Spermatogenesis
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formation of sperm
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Spermatogenesis Fact #1
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Wall of seminiferous tubules with germinal cells (or spermatogonia) that split via meiosis
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Spermatogenesis Fact #2
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Germinal cells first split by mitosis, one daughter cell will split via meiosis (primary spermatocyte), but other remains diploid
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Spermatogenesis Fact #3
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Primary spermatocyte undergoes first meiosis to form 2 secondary spermatocytes
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Spermatogenesis Fact #4
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Secondary spermatocytes undergo second meiosis to form 4 spermatids
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Setoli cells
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secrete products required for spermatogenesis and help to convert spermatids to spermatozoa by engulfing the spermatids extra cytoplasm
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Sperm
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Made up of: Head, Body, and Tail
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Sperm Head
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compact with nucleus and acrosome (derived from golgi body) that contains enzymes that allow the sperm to penetrate the egg
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Sperm Body
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centriole - base of body of flagellum and mitochondria for energy
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Sperm Tail
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flagellum for movement
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Female reproductive system
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Clitoris, Labia majora, Ovaries with ovarian follicles, Fallopian tubes (oviducts), Uterus, Cervix, Vagina, Oogenesis,
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Clitoris
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from same tissue as penis - contains corpora cavernosa and is erectile
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Labia majora
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from same tissue as scrotum
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Ovaries with ovarian follicles
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each with egg cell and granulosa cells
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Fallopian tubes
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(oviducts) - transport ova to uterus
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Uterus
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in primates a single pear-shaped organ where growth of fetus occurs. In most animals there are two uterine horns - derived from oviduct
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Cervix
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projection of uterus into vagina
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Vagina
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receptacle for penis
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Oogenesis
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formation of eggs
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Oogenesis Step #1
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At birth - 2 million follicles each with an ovum arrested in prophase I of meiosis (primary oocyte)
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Oogenesis Step #2
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FSH stimulates a few follicles to develop, but only one reached full maturity - tertiary or Graafian follicle
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Oogenesis Step #3
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Follicle forms a thin walled blister on surface of ovary
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Oogenesis Step #4
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Primary oocyte completes first meiosis in follicle. Cleavage is uneven producing a small first polar body and a large secondary oocyte
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Oogenesis Step #5
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Secondary oocyte begins meiosis II but arrested at metaphase II when ejected from ovary when follicle bursts because of an increase in LH
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Oogenesis Step #6
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Oocyte enters abdominal cavity and is pulled into the fallopian tube by the action of ciliary cells
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Oogenesis Step #7
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If fertilized in Fallopian tube, meiosis II continues and forms second polar body and ovum which joins with sperm
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Oogenesis Step #8
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Fertilization is in upper 1/3 of fallopian tube - it takes 2-3 days for the zygote to implant in the endometrium of the uterus
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