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129 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
*Natural Selection
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The differential survival and reproduction of individuals in a population
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What affect does natural selection have on the allele frequencies
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It changes them in a non-random way
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*Biological Evolution
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A change in the frequency in an inherited character from one generation to the next or across many generations
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5 microevolutionary forces that can cause allele frequencies in a population to change
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1.mutation
2.non-random mating 3.Immigration/Emmigration 4.genetic drift 5.Natural selection |
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*Adaptation
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A characteristic of an organism that is the result of natural selection
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fitness
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abilty to survive and reproduce
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Relative fitness
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fitness of genotype relative to the other genotypes
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Directional selection
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selection favoring one homozygous genotype caused the favored allele to increase in frequency, decreases genitic variation
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Disruptive selection
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Selection favoring both homozygous genotypes also maintains both alleles at high frequency
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stabilizing selection
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selection favoring the heterozygous genotype maintains both alleles at high frequency- increases genetic variation
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Frequency-dependent selection
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The fitness of a particular genotype depends on its frequency in population
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Phyletic gradualism
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species evolve slowly
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punctuated equilibrium
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species evolve rapidly
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anagenesis
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change in a lineage with out speciation
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Cladogenesis
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change in a lineage with speciation
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* biological species concept
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species are groups of interbreeding natural populatons that are reproductively isolated from other such groups
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reproductive isolation
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cant interbreed, rises as a by-product of genetic change
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prezygotic isolation
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-mating or zygote formation is prevented
1.Temporal-differnt matting seasons 2.behavioral 3.ecological-differnt parts of a habitat 4.mechanical-parts dont fit |
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Postzygotic isolation
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matting occurs, but offspring is not successful
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cretaceous-tertiary extinction
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about 65mya caused by asteroid impact in gulf of mexico. 52% of marine genera extinct 18% of vertebrate families including dinosaurs
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hardy-weinberg theory
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a null model for evolutionary change, used to predict genotype frequency given the allel frequency
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Why are mutations important
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all genetic variation starts with dna mutations
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what is neutral genetic variation
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one third of all mutations at 3rd codon postions and most do not change the amino acid or the protein
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Non-random mating
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individuals choose mates- beneficial mutations are extrmely rare.
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positive assortative mating
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individuals tend to choose mates like themselves
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negative assortative mating
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individuals tend to choose mates unlike themselves
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Immigrations/emigration (Gene flow)
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movement of genes into or out of a population requires movement of individuals and successful mating
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Genetic drift
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Changes in allele frequency due to random events that are most noticeable in small populations
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What is a population bottleneck
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crash in population size also causes crash in amoust of genetic diversity
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founder effect
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when a small # of people start a foundation
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Phylogeny
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a tree depicting the evolutionary history of a species or group of species also called a cladogram
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ingroup vs outgroup
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ingroup-group your a studying
Outgroup-group closely related to species but not part of the ingroup |
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shared derived character
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is a shared by two or more members of the ingroup but is not found in the outgroup
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ancestral character
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is found in the ingroup and in the outgroup
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apomorphy
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is a character found in only one species
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principal of parsimony
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pick the best tree with the less amounts of ticks
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homology vs analogy
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species are similar and related -same structure but differnt functions
Opposite of homology-species are similar but unrelated |
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3 main groups of fish
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1.jawless-oldest group evolved 550mya
2.osteichthyes-bony fish, appear in fossil records 470mya 3.chondrichthyes-cartilaginous fish |
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three innovations that the osteichthyes possess
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1.hinged jaws-catch bigger prey
2.vertebrae-protect spinal cord 3.paired fins-allow fishes to maneuver while swimming |
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characteristics of amphibians
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strong legs that extend out sideways from body, three chambered heart need water or moisture for reproduction
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3 main groups of amphibians
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1. apoda (caecilians)- 150 species, legless, blind, tropical, burrow in soil eat anthropods
2. urodela (salamanders)- 500 species, trestrial and aquatic species can regenerate lost tail and limbs 3. anura(frogs and toads)- 3200 species, both terrestial and aquatic powerful hind legs sticky toung |
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paedomorphosis
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reaching reproductive maturity while still immature body form
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4 major evolutionary innovations found in reptiles
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1.dry scaly skin prevents dehydration on land no more breathing through skin
2.expandable rib cage increases breathing efficiency 3. legs beneth the body for more efficient running and walking 4. amniotic eggs: eggs for land |
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Albumn
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egg white-water source
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yolk sac
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yellow-protein
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allantois
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pink sack-waste
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2 main groups of dinosaurs
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1. ornithischian-bird hipped
2. saurischian-lizard hipped |
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6 characteristics of birds
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1.feathers/flight
2. warm blooded 3.air sac system 4. four chambered heart 5.no teeth in modern birds 6. no bony tail in modern birds |
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gizzard and why is it important
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muscular stomach for grinding food
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how is lift on a birds wing generated
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differences in air pressure above and below the wing created by the air foil shape of the wing
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adaptations for nocturnal hunting found in owls
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a. quiet plumage (flight)
b. big eyes fixed in their sockets c.neck grooves d.asymmetric ears |
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therapsids
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mammals evolved from these primitive reptiles
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important characteristics of mammals
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a.warm blooded
b.mammary glands and milk nourish offspring c.hair made keratin d.4 chambered heart e. well developed brain |
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monotremes
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only living mammals that lay eggs
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marsupials
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young developed in a pouch
largest diversity found in australia |
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placental mammals
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developing embryo nourished by a placenta inside mother's uterus
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characteristics of a primate
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a. all primates, except humans hae a big toe separate from other toes
b.thumb is separate from fingers c.binocular vision d. large brains and short jaws e. flat nails on fingers and toes |
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two groups of primates
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prosimians & anthropoids
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three main groups of anthropoids
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1. new world monkeys
2. old world monkeys 3. great apes |
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new world monkeys
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prehensile tail, all species live in trees, nostrils open to the side
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old world monkeys
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no prehensile tail, arboreal and trestrial species, nostrils open downward.
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great apes
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no tail, aboreal and trestrial species, large body size, nostrils open downward.
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tarsioidea
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prosimian that is most closely related to the anthropoid primates
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which anthropoid primates are most closely related to humans
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chimpanzee bonobos
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which group of monkeys are most closely related to the great apes and humans
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old world monkeys
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entire hisotry of primates goes back how many years?
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65mya
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how long did humans and chimpanzees diverge on separate evolutionary branches
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6mya
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hominid
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refers to those branches of the evoloutionary tree closely related to humans
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what was the first hominid species to migrate out of africa and when did they leave
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homo erectus 1.8 mya to 200,000 y.a.
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neandrethals
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a separate species that lived in europe and the middle east from 200,000ya to about 35,000ya
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when did homo sapieans arise
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200,000ya
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Behavior
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what an animal does and how it does it
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innate behaviors
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instinctive, fixed and not modified by enviornmental factors.
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fixed action patterns
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a sequece of innate behaviors that is unchangeable and once initiated is carried to completion
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super normal stimulus
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when organisms prefer an excessive stimulus to the normal stimulus
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learning
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the modification of behavior resulting from specific experiences
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imprinting
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the recognition response and attachment of young to a particular adult or object
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habituation
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the loss of responsiveness to unimportant stimuli.
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associative learning
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the ability of many aminals to learn to associate one stimulis with another.
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operant conditioning
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Trial and Error learning. rewards and punishments
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Insight learning
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reasoning, formunalted a course of action by understanding the relationship between the parts of the problem. common only in primates and especially humans.
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behavioral conflicts of intrests
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confilicts between sexes, with sexes, parents and offspring, sibling rivalry
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Anisogamy
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difference in gamete size in males and females
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monogamy
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1 male and 1 female made for life
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polygyny
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one male, multiple females
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mate guarding
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protecting your investment in reproduction by not allowing your partner to mate with other individuals.
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polyandry
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one female and multiple males
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minimal criteria
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females accept the first mate that meets a minimum threshold. usually when males are scarse
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best in show
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females accept the best male among those available
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leks
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an arena where males gather to display and females choose the best male among those present
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Inclusive fitness
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your fitness plus the fitness of your close relatives
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population
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individuals same species present together in the same area at the same time
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population ecology
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study of populations in relation to the environment
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life table
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age-specific summary of the survial and reproduction of the individuals in a population
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Survivorship
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portion of individuals alive during a given time interval
type 1-high survivalship throught early and middle age(humans) type 2-relatively constant survivorship throughout life (birds) type 3- low survivorship in early life (oak trees) |
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fertility
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age-specific summary of the reproductive rates in a population
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life history and its traits
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the triats that affect an organism's schedule of survival and reproduction
Traits- How long to live? when to reproduce? how many eggs/seeds to make? how much parental care? |
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Semelparity vs Iteroparity
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large # of offspring produced in a single reproductive bout vs. small number of offspring produced in each of several reproductive bouts.
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exponential population growth vs. Logistive population growth
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Maximum growth rate under ideal condtions vs population growth is limited by carrying capacity
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Density-dependent factors
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Population size controlled by disease, competition, parasites, territorial, accumulation of wastes. these factors become intense as pop. size increases.
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allee effect
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individuals in a pop. may have a hard time surviving or reproducing if pop. size is too small or too large
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density-independent factors
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population size affected by natural disaster, climate change, these factors affect large and small populations equally
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ecology
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how organisms interact with each other and the environment
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community
vs habitat |
comm-organisms of differnt species living in the same geografic area at the same time
hab-the place where an organism lives |
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niche
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an organism's fuctional role in a habitat or community
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allen's rule
& Bergmann's rule |
mammals that live in the cold have shorter faces and libs than mammals living in warmer areas
warm blooded animals that live in the cold are bigger than those that live in the warm areas |
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intra-specific competition
& its effect |
competition between individuals of the same species
Limits population size and growth |
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inter-specific competition
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competition between differnt species
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character displacement
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species evolve non-overlapping traits so they dont have to compete with each other
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resource partitioning
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when species have divided the resources so they dont have to compete for the same food
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competitive exclusion
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one species excludes another though competition
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herbivory, parasitism, predation
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one species benefits, the other is harmed
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herbivory
Grazing Browsing |
eating plants, sometimes kills the plant and sometimes not
Graz-eating entire plant Brow-eating only part of the plant |
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parasitism
parasitoid |
one organism feeds on the living tissue of another organism
usally consumes its host while alive |
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perdation
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one organism benefits the other dies
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commensalism
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an interation that benefits one species but has no affect of the other
example:birds nest |
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mutualism
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an interaction the benefits both species
example: humming bird pollinating |
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co-evolution
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reciprocal adaptions of two differnt species
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cryptic coloration
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for hiding
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aposematice coloration
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warns of poison
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deceptie patters or behavior
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to distract or fool potential predators
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batesian mimicry
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when a harmless species mimics a harmful species
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allopatric speciation
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ranges do not touch or over lap no gene flow
*most common |
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Parapatric speciation
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ranges touch but do not overlap significantly, gene flow is usually small
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Sympatric speciation
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ranges overlap significantly, gene flow is not prevented by geography
*least common |
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amnion
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fluid filled sack shock absorbant
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chorion
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membrane around amnion sack-gas is diffused through sack
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life history tradeoffs
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a. survival and reproduction
b. offspring quality versus offspring number |
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what does the tick mark on the tree represent
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evolutionary change
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