Bio 110 Exam 3

Process by which living cells obtain energy

Its aim is to make ATP and NADH

Its is an an aerobic respiration that uses oxygen(O2 consumed and CO2 released)

Co2 is produced

ATP use and production

Electrons

Number of carbons

First is glycysis which takes place in the cytosol

Second is breakdown of pyruvate to acetyl CoA

Then citric acid cycle also called Krebs cycle

Last is electron transport

Because they don't have a mitochondria

Sugar splitting

It does not require oxygen

It is divided into two major phases

Energy investment phase

Energy feature phase

It is transferred from a 6 carbon sugar into two G3P(3 carbon sugars) then those become two pyruvates

Two Nad+ are converted into two NADH and two ADP are made into ATP

Because CO2 is lost NAD+ are converted into NADH

COA attaches to pyruvates and is then converted into 2 acetyl COA molecules

First a citric acid compound loses CO2 and releases NADH, then it becomes a 5 carbon compound which releases another CO2 and NADH then becomes a 4 carbon compound this 4 carbon compound becomes an isomer and just finish this later

1 ATP

3 NADH

1 FADH2

2CO2

It produces all of this times 2 for each glucose molecule

NAD pulse picks up the hydrogen atom and becomes NADH. NADH takes the hydrogen to the electron transport chain and drops it off

Energy invest phase starts with 6 carbons which is two atps(glucose). Using energy from two atps the reaction spills it into 2 g3p l.

Substrate level phosphorylation is everything not happening in the electron transport chain

Net yield pursuant glucose two atps two nadhs

Pyruvic acid is 3 carbon it is converted into acetyl coa a two carbon because one carbon leaves and becomes carbon dioxide

First acetyl coa comes in and merges with a four carbon compound to become citric acid than one carbon breaks off and becomes CO2 in this process NAD plus becomes NADH then the now 5 carbon compound loses another carbon becomes CO2 and makes another NADH

Pyruvate enters mitochondria>grains coa>becomes acetyl coa>loses co2>strata Krebs cycle>yields fadh2 3 NADH and ATP also one less co2

Electron transport chain(ETC)is need to harvest potential energy in NADHS and FADH2s

ETC is a series of electrons carriers in the inner membrane of(welp)

NADH enters the ETC and drops off the hydrogen then leaves as NAD plus the hydrogen the diffuse across the membrane with help of(fill in the blank) NADH enters the ETC and drops off the hydrogen then leaves the hydrogens are pumped into the inner membrane space the potential energy from them is used to start ATP synthase So h ions diffuse from complex one and two then they are sucked up by ATP sytnhase the energy fro. Those is used to make ADP into ATP

NADH enters the ETC and drops off the hydrogen then leaves the hydrogens are pumped into the inner membrane space the potential energy from them is used to start ATP synthase

So h ions diffuse from complex one and two then they are sucked up by ATP sytnhase the energy fro. Those is used to make ADP into ATP

Sum of all the chemical activities taking place in an organism. There are two types of metabolism.

Anabolism: Complex molecules synthesized from simpler substances

Catabolism: Larger molecules broken down into smaller ones

A series of chemical reactions in which the product of one reaction becomes the substrate of the next reaction.

Metabolic pathway order substrate>intermidiate>end product

Metabolic pathways are regulated with enzyme inhibitors.

A substance on which an enzyme acts; a reactant in an enzymatically catalyzed reaction.

A substance formed by a chemical reaction.

Anabolic reactions build bigger molecules from smaller ones, catabolic reactions make larger molecules smaller

Energy is the capacity to do work, which is any changein the state or motion of matter

its unit of measure is the kilocalorie (kcal)

Potential energy is stored energy

While kinetic energy is energy in motion

Chemical energy is potential energy stored in chemical bonds

Potential Energy: granola bars 150 kcal and 12”pizza 1200 kcal

Kinetic Energy: Aerobics: 422 kcal/hr and housecleaning: 250 kcal/hr

The study of Energy and Energy transformations

The first law is the law of conservation of energy/law of conservation of matter:

Mainly that energy and matter can be interconverted

Energy/mattercannot be created or destroyed, only transformed or transferred.

The Second Law is transferor transformation of energy from one form to another is not 100% efficient andincreases entropy or degree of disorder of a system.

Any system tends spontaneously to become disorganized.

heat is the kinetic energy of randomly moving particles.

Disorderliness; a quantitative measure of the amount of the random, disordered energy that is unavailable to do work.

Entropy is less usable disorganized energy while enthalpy is total potential

H is enthalpy; G is free energy; T is the absolute temperature of the system, expressed in Kelvin units; and S is entropy.

Enthalpy, free energy, and entropy are related by the equation

H = G + TS

Often called free energy, Gibbs energy is the maximum amount of energy available to do work under the conditions of a biochemical reaction.

It also is the only kind of energy that can do cell work

G = H - TS

Enthalpy is the total potential energy of a system; sometimes referred to as the “heat content of the system.”

the total potential energy of the system, a quantity known as enthalpy (H).

Exergonic reactions are spontaneous and energy comes out of the reaction

Endergonic reactions require addition of energy and they are not spontaneous

an endergonic reaction needs the energy (ATP) created by an exergonic reaction. Therefore those reactions can be coupled.

Enzymes are biological catalysts

Cells regulate the rate of chemicalreactions with enzymes

Although most enzymes are proteins, sometypes of RNA molecules have catalytic activity as well

No, they are not

Enzymes lower activation energy, they impact free energy by lowering the amount

Activation energy is the energy needed for a reaction to start

Note: Enzymes lower the activation energy needed; therefore the reaction can happen faster

Active site: a specific region of an enzyme (generally near the surface) that accepts one or more substrates and catalyzes a chemical reaction.

Induced fit: conformational change in the active site of an enzyme that occurs when it binds to its substrate

Each enzyme has a specific shape for each substrate and they stay together due to induced fitting

Oxidoreductases Catalyze oxidation–reduction reactions

Transferases Catalyze the transfer of a functional group from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule

Hydrolases Catalyze hydrolysis reactions

Isomerases Catalyze conversion of a molecule from one isomeric form to another

Ligases Catalyze certain reactions in which two molecules become joined in a process coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP

Lyases Catalyze certain reactions in which double bonds form or break

Optimum temperature: is the specific range of temperature atwhich the enzymatic rate of reaction is the fastest.

Increasing the temperature above the optimum range of temperature will denature the enzyme – the enzyme will not befunctional.
Decreasing the temperature below the optimum range of temperature will slow down the reaction, but will not denature the enzyme.

Optimum pH: is the specific range of pH at which theenzymatic rate of reaction is the fastest.

Anenzyme will denatureoutside the optimum pH range.

Makes the activity rate more stable/eventually makes it stop going up

A cofactor is a nonprotein substance needed by an enzyme for normal activity; some cofactors are inorganic (usually metal ions); others are organic (coenzymes).

An coenzyme is a organic cofactor for an enzyme; generally participates in the reaction by transferring some component, such as electrons or part of a substrate molecule

Glycosidases are a subclass of the hydrolases (see Figure 3-8bfor the hydrolysis of sucrose).

Phosphatases, enzymes that remove phosphate groups by hydrolysis, are also hydrolases.

Kinases, enzymes that transfer phosphate groups to substrates, are transferases.

Three types of photosynthesis

All energy travels as waves

Shorter wavelengths have more energy than longer ones

Leaves appear green because the pigments they have reflect green wavelengths of light

are black

When objects reflect all wavelengths they are white when they reflect none and absorb all they are blackEverything has a particular absorption spectrum meaning they have a particular wavelength of light they are going to absorb and reflect

are blackEverything has a particular absorption spectrum meaning they have a particular wavelength of light they are going to absorb and reflect

Everything has a particular absorption spectrum meaning they have a particular wavelength of light they are going to absorb and reflect

Oxygen acts as the terminate electron acceptor for out electron chain

There are four cycle glycolysis which produces pyruvate that breaks down and then enters the Krebs cycle that produces NADH and FADH2s that goes to the electron transport chain

it is called the citric acid cycle because the first compound formed is citric acid

There are two phosphorylation

It turns from ADP to ATP because GDP donates a phosphate this is substrate level phosphorylation

In the inter membrane of the mitochondria is where NADH and Fadh2s drop of their hydrogens/electrons these then go into the ATP synthase which makes a it is called the citric acid cycle because the first compound formed is citric acidThere are two phosphorylation It turns from ADP to ATP because GDP donates a phosphate this is substrate level phosphorylation Substrate phosphorylation Oxygen is the final electron acceptor without it there will be an accumulation of electrons and all ATP production will be stopped this will make the cell dieNADH becomes NAD+ because the lose of the hydrogen/ one electron makes it positive again

Substrate phosphorylation

it is called the citric acid cycle because the first compound formed is citric acidThere are two phosphorylation It turns from ADP to ATP because GDP donates a phosphate this is substrate level phosphorylation Substrate phosphorylation Oxygen is the final electron acceptor without it there will be an accumulation of electrons and all ATP production will be stopped this will make the cell dieNADH becomes NAD+ because the lose of the hydrogen/ one electron makes it positive again

Oxygen is the final electron acceptor without it there will be an accumulation of electrons and all ATP production will be stopped this will make the cell dieNADH becomes NAD+ because the lose of the hydrogen/ one electron makes it positive again

NADH becomes NAD+ because the lose of the hydrogen/ one electron makes it positive again

How does cyanide kill: because it blocks the transfer of electrons to oxygen

Proteins carbs and fats can also be energy sources

Amino acids can be converted into pyruvate

Fatty acids can be converted into acetyl coa

Bacteria can survive on anaerobic respiration via fermentation although fermentation provides way less atp

Fermentation is anaerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration is no oxygen

Competitive inhibitors- competewith the substrate for access to active site of the enzyme.

Noncompetitive inhibitors- bindoutside the active site of the enzyme

Two similar definitions

A site on an enzyme other than the active site, to which a specific substance binds, thereby changing the shape and activity of the enzyme.

the site binding causes because of conformational change in enzyme active site inhibiting enzyme function

Two similar defintions

A type of enzyme regulation in which the accumulation of the product of a reaction inhibits an earlier reaction in the sequence; also known as end product inhibition.

The productof pathway inhibits early steps to prevent over accumulation of product.

They can be reversible or irreversible– if they are Irreversible the inhibitor combines with an enzyme andpermanently inactivates it

Adenosine= ribose + adenine

3phosphates

They release energy through Hydrolysis

the energy is stored between phosphate bonds

Kinases, enzymes that transfer phosphate groups to substrates, they are transferases.

Phosphorylation The introduction of a phosphate group into an organic molecule

6CO2+ 12H2O --> C6H12O6+ 6O2+ 6H2O

Photosynthesis also releases O2, which is essential to aerobic cellular respiration, the process by which plants, animals, and most other organisms convert this chemical energy to ATP to power cellular processes. Or photosynthesis is reverse cellular respiration

Autotrophs are able to use inorganic compounds, such as carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon for manufacturing their organic molecules

Autotrophs can make their own nutrition while heterotrophs have to rely on other organisims

Mesophyll is photosynthetic tissue in the interior of a leaf; sometimes differentiated into palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll.
Spongy mesophyll, loosely arranged mesophyll cells near the lower epidermis in certain leaves.

Palisade mesophyll The vertically stacked, columnar mesophyll cells near the upper epidermis in certain leaves.

Chlorophyll is confined to organelles called chloroplasts.

The chloroplast, like the mitochondrion, is enclosed by outer and inner membranes

Stomata/Stoma/Pores

are small pores located in the epidermis of plants that provide for gas exchange for photosynthesis; each stoma is flanked by two guard cells, which are responsible for its opening and closing.

Chlorophyll is a group of light-trapping green pigments found in most photosynthetic organisms.

The veins not only supply the photosynthetic ground tissue with water and minerals but also carry dissolved sugar produced during photosynthesis to all parts of the plant.

Thylakoid sacs are arranged in stacks called grana (sing., granum). Each granum looks something like a stack of coins, with each “coin” being a thylakoid.

An interconnected system of flattened, saclike, membranous structures inside the chloroplast; the thylakoid membranes contain chlorophyll and enclose an internal space, the thylakoid lumen.

Two membranes enclose the chloroplast and separate it from the cytosol. The inner membrane encloses a fluid-filled space called the stroma

The inner chloroplast membrane may or may not be continuous with the thylakoid membrane

Stroma is a fluid space of the chloroplast, enclosed by the chloroplast inner membrane and surrounding the thylakoids; site of the reactions of the Calvin cycle.

The thylakoid membrane encloses the innermost compartments within the chloroplast, the thylakoid lumen.

The Light-dependent part which is the photo of photosynthesis happens in thylakoid membrane it makes ATP and NADPH also O2 is a byproduct of this reaction

A redox process is used for photosynthesis, hydrogen from the H2O(water) in soil reduce carbon and the O2 from water becomes oxidized this process happens in the chlorophyll

The light energy captured is then converted to CHO

•Substance that becomes oxidized gives up energy

•Substance that becomes reduced receives energy

•Redox reactions are coupled

•Essential part of cellular respiration,photosynthesis, and other chemical reactions

Reduction is the opposite of oxidation:

•gaining an e- (gaining Energy)

•loss of oxygen

•gaining of H

•a reduction in oxidation number

Oxidation is defined as:

•a loss of e- (gives up Energy)

•a gain of oxygen

• a loss of H

• an increase in oxidation number

The oxidizing agent accepts 1 or more electrons and becomes reduced

The electron transport chain is needed to harvest potential energy

Photons and water are the reactants, ATP and NADPH are the products of the light-dependent reaction

Each chloroplast has granum and granum are made of thylakoids and thylakoids are mde of different chlorophyll

The sun has an electromagnetic spectrum the plants absorb energy from the suns different wavelengths

Longer wavelengths have less energy

It is either transmitted which means light passes through, reflected or absorbed

Some photosynthesis happens in the stroma and thylakoid membrane.

It is the wavelength where maximum photosynthesis occurs

The light independent/carbon fixation/Calvin cycle is the synthesis part of photosynthesis it happens in the stroma, or forms sugars . This is what is used to make the C6H12O6(glucose)

Two photsystems psu2 and psu1 they are involved in the light reactions they at as redox machine chlorophyll b is the one most important for photosynthesis the others are called antenna complexes

The wavelength maximum photosynthesis occurs is 680

Ps2 holds the chlorophyll and antenna complexes it absorbs the photon and passes it around antenna complexes until it reaches a primary electron acceptor after that it goes through a few complexes and redox reactions still it reaches Psu1 the cycle repeats

Thos whole process is the photo of photosynthesis and generaratws ATP and nadph

Each photosystem includes:

Chlorophyll molecules

Multiple antenna complexes

Photosystem I reaction center

P700 has an absorption peak at 700 nm

Photosystem II reaction center:

P680 has an absorption peak at 680 nm

Light strikes PSII, exciting 2 e-, which are passed to an electron acceptor.

[e- lost from PSII must be replaced - replacement electrons are obtained by splitting water (O2 is released as a byproduct of the light reactions)]

e-(from PSII) flow down ETC, providing energy for production of ATP by chemiosmotic phosphorylation.

Lightstrikes PSI,exciting 2 e-, which are passed to an acceptor molecule. e- reaching bottom of ETC are passed to PSIas replacement e-.

Excited e- flow down a 2nd ETC,providing energy for production of NADPH

Note: electrons released when water was spliteventually end up in NADPH

replacement electrons are obtained by splitting water (O2 is released as a byproduct of the light reactions)]

Photosynthetic units responsible for capturing light E and transferring excited e-

They both have chlorophyll molecules and antenna complexes but different absorption peaks

An energized electron is transferred to a primary electron acceptor, a special molecule of chlorophyll a, which is the first of several electron acceptors in a series.

H20 is oxidized NADPH is reduced

ATP Synthase makes ATP As protons flow through the ATP synthase, ADP is phosphorylated, forming ATP

H+ move from stroma to thylakoid lumen, creating a proton gradient

Greater concentration of H+ lowers the pH in the thylakoid lumen

Noncyclic ET'S has an electron source: H2O, Oxygen released from H20, and a Terminal electron acceptor: NADP+. Cyclic has none of these
Noncyclic captures energy temporarily in the form of ATP (by chemiosmosis) and NADPH while cyclic only in the form of ATP

Photosystem(s) required for noncyclic are PS I and PS II while cyclic requires PS I only

Reactants are ATP, O2, and NADPH Product is Carbohydrates mostly glucose

The enzyme rubisco “fixes” CO2 [attaches CO2 to the 5-carbon sugar, ribulose biphosphate (RuBP)]

The resulting 6C compound is unstable & immediately splits to form two 3C molecules (PGA).

G3P is the direct carbohydrate product of the carbon reactions

G3P molecules are siphoned off& combined to form glucose, sucrose, starch & other organic molecules.

Some of the G3P is rearranged toregenerate RuBP. [essential step inperpetuating the cycle]

PGA is phosphorylated by ATP and reduced by NADPH. Removal of a phosphate from ATP results in ADP and formation of G3P.

NADPH also becomes NADP+ through this

To keep the plant alive during the night and to power the Calvin cycle

"rubisco"- ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenous. it is the enzyme that catalyzes the fixation of carbon dioxide in the Calvin cycle.

6 are in the Calvin cycle they are used to make carbohydrates

G3P molecules are siphoned off& combined to form glucose, sucrose, starch & other organic molecules

Reactants Organic molecules + O2→

Products CO2+ H2O + Energy

Through glycolysis, ATP comes from glucose(or other other organic molecules)

•FromGlucose to CO2 Oxidation

•FromO2 to H2O à Reduction

The formation of ATP by the transfer of a phosphate to ADP from a phosphorylated intermediate.

It begins with ATP giving one of its phosphates to glucose. ATP becomes ADP and glucose becomes phosphorylated glucose this makes it more chemically reactive

Glucose's hydrogen and oxygen atoms are rearranged which converts it to its isomer fructose-6-phosphate

Another ATP gives the molecule phosphate creating fructose-1 6-Biphosphate. The molecule is now ready to be split

fructose-1 6-Biphosphate splits into two 3- carbon sugars glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate(G3P) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is converted into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate(G3P) its isomer to further metabolism in glycolysis

The start of energy capture phase. each G3P goes through dehydrogenation. These immediately combine with the hydrogen carrier molecule NAD+. The result of this is phosphoglycerate. This then reacts to phosphate in the cytosol making 1,3 biphosphoglycerate

One phosphate from 1,3 biphosphoglycerate reacts with ADP to form ATP. This transfer of phosphate from phosphorylated intermediate to ATP is called substrate-level phosphorylation

3-phosphoglycerate is rearranged to 2- phosphoglycerate by the enzymatic shift of position of phosphate group this is preparation reaction

The molecule of water is removed which results in the formation of a double bond. this creates phosphoenolpyruvate(PEP). It has a phosphate group attached to an unstable bond

Each two PEP molecules transfer their phosphate groups to ADP to yield ATP and Pyruvate. This is a substrate level phosphorylation reaction

Yes 4 are made 2 are used

NAD+is reduced to NADH.

Each glucose molecule produces net yield of two NADH molecules and two ATP molecules

Pyruvic acid must be converted to AcetylCoA
During the conversion, CO2 is released & NAD+ is reduced to NADH.

In the first step of the citric acid cycle, acetyl CoA joins with a four-carbon molecule, oxaloacetate, releasing the CoA group and forming a six-carbon molecule called citrate.

In the second step, citrate is converted into its isomer, isocitrate. This is actually a two-step process, involving first the removal and then the addition of a water molecule, which is why the citric acid cycle is sometimes described as having nine steps—rather than the eight listed here

In the third step, isocitrate is oxidized and releases a molecule of carbon dioxide, leaving behind a five-carbon molecule—α-ketoglutarate. During this step, NAD+, is reduced to form NADH enzyme catalyzing this step, isocitrate dehydrogenase, is important in regulating the speed of the citric acid cycle.

α-ketoglutarate that’s oxidized, reducing NAD+ to NADH and releasing a molecule of carbon dioxide in the process. The remaining four-carbon molecule picks up Coenzyme A, forming the unstable compound succinyl CoA The enzyme catalyzing this step, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, is also important in the regulation of the citric acid cycle.

In step five, the CoA of succinyl CoA is replaced by a phosphate group, which is then transferred to ADP to make ATP. In some cells, GDP guanosine diphosphate—is used instead of ADP, forming GTP—guanosine triphosphate—as a product. The four-carbon molecule produced in this step is called succinate.

In step six, succinate is oxidized, forming another four-carbon molecule called fumarate. In this reaction, two hydrogen atoms—with their electrons—are transferred to FAD producing FADH. The enzyme that carries out this step is embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, so FADH can transfer its electrons directly into the electron transport chain

In step seven, water is added to the four-carbon molecule fumarate, converting it into another four-carbon molecule called malate.

In the last step of the citric acid cycle, oxaloacetate—the starting four-carbon compound—is regenerated by oxidation of malate. Another molecule of NAD+ is reduced to NADH in the process.

They are being reduced during the third, fourth, sixth and eighth step because of the oxidation of other molecules

ATP is made when the CoA of succinyl CoA is replaced by a phosphate group during step five

Oxygen is the final electron acceptor

Electrons pass down the electron transport chain in series of redox reactions.

H+ accumulates in inner compartment of mitochondria and are pumped out creating a H+ gradient

Makes ATP. Protons passthrough ATP synthase channels from the intermembrane space to the matrix; ADP is phosphorylated, forming ATP

32-34

the electron transport chain powers proton pumps that produce a proton gradient across the membrane;

ATP is formed as protons diffuse through transmembrane channels in ATP synthase.

Anaerobic respiration is for environments that lack oxygen or during oxygen deficits.
it is different because it lacks oxygen and produces less ATP

The pyruvic acid "ferments" to lactic acid (CO2 isn't produced). Used to make: Yogurt and Cheese

Alcoholic fermentation, the pyruvic acid produced by glycolysis "ferments" to ethanol, producing CO2 Used to make: Beer and Brea