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228 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is Life?
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The ensemble of functions that resist death
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How is life organized?
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Organization often follows a hierarchical pattern of structures within structures within structures
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What are the levels of life's organization?
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atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, multicellular organism, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere
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What are the 5 characteristics of life?
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Organization, Energy use, Maintenance of internal constancy, Reproduction growth and development, Evolution
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Organization
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Example: Atoms make up molecules, which make up organelles, which occur inside cells, which make up tissues, and so on
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Energy use
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Example: A kitten uses the energy from its mothers milk to fuel its own growth
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Maintenance of internal constancy
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Example: Your kidneys regulate your bodys water balance by increasing or decreasing the concentration of your urine
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Reproduction, growth, and development
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Example: An acorn germinates, develops into an oak seedling, and, at maturity, reproduces sexually to produce its own acorns
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Evolution
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Example: Increasing numbers of bacteria survive treatment with antibiotic drugs
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Atom
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The smallest chemical unit of a type of pure substance (element). Consists of protons, neutrons, electrons, and a neucleus
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Molecule
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A group of joined atoms
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Organelle
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A membrane-bounded structure that has a specific function within a complex cell
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Cell
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The fundamental unit of life
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Tissue
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A collection of specialized cells that function in a coordinated fashion
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Organ
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A structure consisting of tissues organized to interact to carry out specific functions
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Organ System
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Organs connected physically or chemically that function together
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Multicellular Organism
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A living individual
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Population
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A group of the same type of organism living in the same place and time
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Communtiy
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All organisms in a given place and time
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Ecosystem
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The living and nonliving environment. (The community of life, plus soil, rocks, water, air, etc.)
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Biosphere
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Parts of the planet and its atmosphere where life is possible
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Taxonomy
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Classification of organisms and life
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What are the hierarchial categories (Domain to Species)?
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Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species
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What is the Scientific Method?
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A systematic approach to understanding the natural world
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Scientific Method categories
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Observations, Hypothesis, Experimentation, Result, and Conclusion
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Hypothesis
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A tentative explanation based on previous knowledge OR a testable question
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Theory
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Well-supported scientific explanation
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Variable
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A changeable element of an experiment
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Independent Variable
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Hypothesized influence on a dependent variable OR a manipulation
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Dependent Variable
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Response that may be under the influence of an independent variable
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Peer Review
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Scientists independently evaluate the validity of the methods, data and conclusions to ensure that published studies are high quality
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What is Science capable of studying?
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Questions about the observable natural world
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Chemical Element
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A pure substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means into other substances
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Periodic Table of Elements
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The chart is periodic because the chemical properties of the elements repeat in each column of the table
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Bulk Elements
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Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfer, and Phosphorus make up the vast majority of every living cell and are required in large amounts
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Trace Elements
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Important in ensuring that vital chemical reactions occur fast enough to sustain life
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Parts of the Atom
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Protons, Neutrons, Electrons, Neucleus
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Protons
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Carry a positive charge
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Neutron
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Uncharged and together form a central nucleus
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Electrons
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Surround the nucleus and are negatively charged
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Which is the smallest part of an atom?
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The electron is the smallest
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Atomic number
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The number of protons in the nucleus
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Atomic Mass or Atomic Weight
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The average weight of all isotopes
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Isotopes
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All isotopes of an element have the same chemical properties, but different mass numbers because the different number of neutrons
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Radioactive Isotope
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Has a characteristic half-life, which is the time it takes for half of the atoms in a sample to emit radiation or decay to a different more stable form
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How are Radioactive Isotopes used in medicine and science?
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Kill disease-causing organisms, Tracers, Radiometric dating, Cancer therapy
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Chemical Bond
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An attractive force that holds atoms together in a molecule
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How does a chemical bond provide the energy within a molecule?
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By sharing, stealing, or donating electrons
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Covalent bond
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Forms when two atoms share electrons. The shared electrons travel around both nuclei, strongly connecting the atoms together
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Ionic bond
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Results from the electrical attraction between two ions with opposite charges
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Hydrogen bond
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Opposite partial charges on adjacent molecules -- or within a single large molecule -- attract eachother
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Nonpolar covalent bond
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A union in which both atoms exert approximately equal pull on their shared electrons
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Polar covalent bond
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Is a lopsided union in which one nucleus exerts a stronger pull on the shared electrons than does the other nucleus
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Are polar covalent bonds important in biology?
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Yes, they are responsible for the shape of DNA and proteins as well as for the unique role of water
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Why is carbon such an important atom in biology?
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It has the potential to create 4 bonds with other atoms
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Cohesion
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The tendency of water molecules to stick together
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What type of bond contributes to waters property of cohesion?
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Hydrogen bonds
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Adhesion
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The tendency to form hydrogen bonds with other substances
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What is the importance of Water?
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Its cohesive and adhesive, Polar substances dissolve in water, water regulates temperature, and water participates in lifes chemical reactions
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What two categories do scientists divide chemicals into based on their affinity for water?
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Hydrophilic and hydrophobic
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Chemical reaction
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Two or more molecules swap their atoms to yield different molecules; some chemical bonds break and new ones form
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Neutral solution
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Has exactly the same amount of H+ as OH-
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Acid
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A chemical that adds H+ to a solution making the concentration of H+ ions exceed the concentration of OH-
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Base
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It makes the concentration of OH- ions exceed the concentration of H+ ions
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What is the pH scale?
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A system of measurement used to gauge how acidic or basic a solution is
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What is the range of the pH scale?
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0 - 14 with 7 being neutral and a basic or alkaline solution being greater than 7
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Buffer system
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Pairs of weak acids and bases that resist pH changes
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Is the correct pH critical to lifes functions and what helps cells maintain proper pH?
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Yes it is critical; Buffers help maintain proper pH
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Organic molecule
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Chemical compounds that contain both carbon and hydrogen
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How are monomers turned into polymers?
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Thru dehydration synthesis
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Dehydration synthesis
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A protein called an enzyme removes a OH (hydroxyl group) from one molecule and a hydrogen atom from another forming H2O and a new bond between the two smaller components
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Monomers
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Chains of small molecular subunits like proteins, nucleic acids, and some carbohydrates
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Polymers
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Monomers which are linked together
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Hydrolysis
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Enzymes use atoms from water to add a hydroxyl group to one molecule and a hydrogen atom to another
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Carbohydrates
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Organic molecules that consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; often in the proportion 1:2:1
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Monosaccharides
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Simple Sugar; the smallest carbohydrates usually contain five or six carbon atoms
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What are some monosaccharides?
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Glucose (blood sugar), galactose, and fructose (fruit sugar)
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Disaccharide (two sugars)
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Two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis
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How is the disaccharide lactose (milk sugar) formed?
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When glucose and galactose come together
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What is the function of monosaccharides and disaccharides?
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Provide a ready source of energy to cells, which is released when their bonds are broken
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Polysaccharides (many sugars)
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Also called complex carbohydrates, are huge molecules consisting of hundreds of monosaccharide monomers
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What are some polysaccharides?
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Cellulose, chitin, starch, and glycogen
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What is the most common organic compound in nature?
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Cellulose (polysaccharide) which forms part of plant cell walls
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What is the function of Chitin?
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Forms the exoskeletons of insects and part of the cell wall of fungi
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What types of polysaccharides store energy?
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Starch and glycogen
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Lipids
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Organic molecules with one property in common; they dont dissolve in water
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Triglycerides (fats)
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Consist of three long hydrocarbon chains called fatty acids bonded to glycerol
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Fatty acid
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Long chain hydrocarbon terminating with a carboxyl group
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Functional groups
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Hydroxyl, carboxyl, amine, phosphate
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Saturated fat
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Fatty acid contains all the hydrogens it possibly can
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Unsaturated fat
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Fatty acid that has at least one double bond between carbon atoms
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Sterols
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Lipids that have four interconnected carbon rings
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Examples of sterols?
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Vitamin D, cortisone, and cholesterol
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Waxes
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Fatty acids combined with either alchols or other hydrocarbons, usually forming a stiff water repellent covering
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Protein
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A chain of monomers called amino acids
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Amino acid
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an organic molecule consisting of a central carbon atom bonded to a hydrogen atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, and an R group
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Peptide
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Chains with fewer than 100 amino acids
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Polypetides
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Chains with 100 amino acids or more
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Denatured
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When its structure is modified enough to destroy its function
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Nucleic acid
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A polymer consisting of monomers called nucleotides
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Cells contain two types of nucleic acids
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RNA and DNA
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Cells
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Microscopic components of all organisms which have highly coordinated biochemical activities within them
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How was the cell discovered?
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In 1660 when Robert Hooke melted glass to create lenses which turned into microscopes
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Cell theory
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1. All organisms are made of one or more cells
2. The cell is the fundamental unit of ALL life 3. All cells come from prexisting cells |
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What is the importance of Cell theory?
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To understand how the world works
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What features are common to all cells?
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DNA, Proteins, RNA, Ribosomes, Cytoplasm, Cell membrane
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DNA
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Genetic information
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Proteins
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Carry out all of the cells work
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RNA
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Participates in the production of the cells proteins
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Ribosomes
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Structures that use RNA to manufacture proteins
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Cytoplasm
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The watery soup of salts, organic molecules and other substances inside the cell
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Cell membrane
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Lipid rich and forms the boundary between living matter and the enviornment
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Organelles
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Compartments in the cytoplasm that carry out specialized functions
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Why is surface area important in a cell?
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The more surface area the more work a cell can do
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What is the cell membrane composed of?
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Phospholipids
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Enzymes
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Proteins that facilitate chemical reactions that otherwise would not proceed quickly enough to sustain life
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Why can Eukaryotic cells do more work than Prokaryotic cells?
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The Prokaryotic cells lack membrane bounded organelles which allow the Eukartotic cells more surface area to do work
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What is the function of the cell membrane?
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1. Seperate the the cytoplasm from the environment
2. Transports substances into and out of the cell |
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Are molecules alive?
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No
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Signal transduction
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A cell receives an external message and converts it into an internal signal
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Why is communication within a cell important?
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It allows cells to tell other cells when to stop dividing unlike cancer cells which dont listen and keep dividing and form tumors or cancer
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Prokaryotes
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are the simplest form of life whose cells lack organelles and nuclei
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Eukaryotes
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Larger than Prokaryotes and Baceria; Have elaborate systems of internal membranes which create organelles where specialized biochemical reactions occur
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Bacteria
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Lack a central nucleus
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Nucleoid
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Where bacteria keep their genetic material (DNA)
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Flagella
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Tails which allow the cell to move; found in bacteria and archea
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What is the main difference between plant and animal cells?
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Plant cells have a central vacuole, chloroplast, and a cell wall
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Golgi apparatus
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An organelle that is a flat stack of membrane enclosed sacs that functions as a processing center
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Nuclear pores
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Where molecules exit the nucleus which are holes in the two layered nuclear envelope
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Nuclear envelope
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Seperates the nucleus from the cytoplasm
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Nucleolus
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A dense spot that assembles the comonents of ribosomes
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Endoplasmic reticulum
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A network of sacs and tubules composed of membranes
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Smooth ER
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Synthesizes lipids and houses enzymes that detoxify drugs and poison
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Rough ER
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Enzymes inside this compartment fold and modify the proteins that enter
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Vesicles
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Small membranous spheres that transport materials inside the cell
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Lysosomes
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Organelles containing enzymes that dismantle captured bacteria
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Vacuole
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In mature plant cells the central vacuole contains a watery solution of enzymes that degrade and recycle molecules and organelles
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Peroxisomes
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Found in eukaryotic cells which are organelles that contain several types of enzymes that dispose of toxic substances and break down fatty acids, cholesterol, and other lipids
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Chloroplast
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Site of photosynthesis which produces plant energy from the sun
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Mitochondria
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Organelles that use a process called cellular respiration to extract this needed energy from food
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Cristae
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Folds in the inner membrane of the mitochondria which contain enzymes that catalyze the biochemical reactions of cellular resperation
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Cytoskeleton
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located in the cytoplasm and gives the cell its structure; Intricate network of internal protein tracks and tubules
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Microtubles
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Participate in cell division and cell movement
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Cilia
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Propels particles up and out of respiratory tubles and allows them to swim
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Microfilament
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Provides the machinery to move (muscle contraction)
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Intermediate filaments
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Maintain shape and connect cells
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Cell walls
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Surround the cell membrane of nearly all bacteria, archaea, fungi, algae, and plants
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Plasmodesmata
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Channels that connect adjacent cells
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Energy
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The ability to do work and move matter
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Potential energy
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Stored energy available to do work
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Kinetic energy
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Energy being used to do work; any moving object has kinetic energy
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First law of thermodynamics
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Energy cannot be created or destroyed only converted into other forms
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What are the most important energy transformations vital to sustain life?
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Photosynthesis and Cellular respiration
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Second law of thermodynamics
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All energy transformations are inefficient because every reaction loses some energy to the surroundings as heat
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Metabolism
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encompasses all chemical reactions in cells, including those that build new molecules and break down existing ones
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Metabolic pathways
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The product of one reaction becomes the starting point of another
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Endergonic reaction
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Store energy by building complex molecules from small components, like building a barn from bricks and boards
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Two groups of metabolic reactions
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Endergonic reaction & Exergonic reaction
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Exergonic reaction
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Releases energy by dismantling complex molecules
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Oxidation
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The loss of electrons from a molecule, atom, or ion
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Reduction
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The gain of electrons plus any energy contained in the electrons
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Chemical equilibrium
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The reaction goes in both directions at the same rate
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ATP
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Temporarily store much of the released energy of life
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phosphorylating
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Transferring its phosphate group to another molecule
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Why is ATP such an important molecule in biology?
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It is used to drive reactions
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Enzyme
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A protein that catalyzes (speeds) a chemical without being consumed
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Why are enzymes important in your body?
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They copy DNA, build proteins, digest food, and recycle cells worn out parts
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How can you denature an enzyme?
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If it gets too hot, the pH changes, or if the salt concentration becomes too high or too low, it will stop working
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What are enzyme inhibitors?
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Affects the binding of substrate
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Diffusion
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The spontaneous movement of a substance from a region where it is less concentrated
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Osmosis
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The simple diffusion of water across a biological membrane
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Simple diffusion
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A form of passive transport where a solute moves down its concentration gradient without the help of a carrier molecule; no energy required
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Facilitated diffusion
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Passive transport where a membrane protein assists the movement of a polar solute along its concentration gradient; no energy required
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Active transport
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A cell uses a transport protein to move a solute against its concentration gradient--from where it is less concentrated to where it is more concentrated
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Why is diffusion important in biology?
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It allows a cell to move substances without using energy
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Isotonic solution
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Same concentration inside the cell as it is outside the cell
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Hypotonic solution
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The concentration outside the cell is less than the inside of the cell
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Hypertonic solution
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The concentration outside the cell is more than the inside of the cell
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Sodium/Potassium Pump
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An enzyme which is part of the active transport system in cell membranes; Uses ATP as its energy source
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Endocytosis
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Allows a cell to engulf large molecules
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Exocytosis
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Transports fluids and large particles out of cells
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How does a cell bring material in, and push material out?
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Endocytosis; Excytosis; The cell either indents and encloses on itself or it basically releases an air bubble of material
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Photosynthesis
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Converts kinetic energy in light to potential energy in the covalent bonds of glucose. Plants, algae, and some bacteria are photosynthetic
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Why is photosynthesis so important?
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It allows plants to feed themselves with sunlight
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Photosynthesis Equation
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6CO2 +6H20 +light energy= C6H12O6 + 6O2
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What are photosynthesis reactants and products
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Sunlight is the reactant and Glucose is the product
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How long ago did photosynthesis begin?
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3.5 billion years ago
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Autotroph
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Organisms that make their own organic compounds from inorganic substances such as Water and CO2
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Heterotrophs
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They obtained carbon by consuming preexisting organic molecules before photosynthesis began
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Electromagnetic radiation
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Consists of photons
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Photon
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Discrete packets of kinetic energy with a distinct wavelength
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What is ATP?
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Its the energy source for everything in a living organism
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Chlorophyl
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A pigment molecule in the thylakoids (pancake stack inside the cell)
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Chloroplasts
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Plant Organelle with folded membranes which allows for the reactions of photosynthesis
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Stroma
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Similar to cytoplasm for animal cells but for plants
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Grana
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Stack of thylakoids (Stack of pancakes)
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Reaction center
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chlorophyll a and its associated proteins
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Light-Independent reaction
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Carbon reactions which dont require light only ATP
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Light dependent reaction
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Only happens during the day for plants
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Photosystem 1
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Collects light through clorophyll a
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Photosystem 2
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Functions first in photosynthesis and it makes ATP
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How many turns of the Calvin Cycle to make one glucose
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2
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What kind of plants are C3 plants?
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Produces 3 carbon molecules from CO2
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What do C3 plants make
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Glucose
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What kind of plants are known as C4 plants?
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Plants with a 4 carbon compound
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Why did C4 plants evolve?
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To resist hot weather
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What kind of plants use CAM photosynthesis?
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Cactus and desert plants where its hot
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Hint
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Photosynthesis produces sugars and respiration breaks sugars down
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How do cells release energy?
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Breaking glucose bonds
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Respiration Equation
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C6H12O6 + 6O2 to 6CO2 + 6H20 + 30ATP
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How is the respiration equation similar to the photosynthesis equation?
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Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis + 30 ATP gained
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What is the main reason why cellular respiration is important?
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It makes ATP
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What does aerobic mean?
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Needs oxygen
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What does anaerobic mean?
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Doesnt need oxygen
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Glycosis
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Breaking sugar
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What does glycosis make?
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Energy / ATP
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What is acetyl co-enzyme A
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The compound that enters the Krebs cycle
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Can acetyl co-enzyme A be made with no oxygen
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Yes
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Krebs Cycle
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Produces ATP
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Electron transport chain
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Transports electrons to a different part of the cell to make more ATP
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How much energy does glucose make
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30 ATP
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How efficiently does glucose break down?
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Only captures 32% of total energy
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Large macromolecules
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Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats
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Why do you need to consume oxygen?
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To recieve electrons at the end of the transport chain
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What does the Calvin Cycle make?
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Sugars
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Where does the Calvin Cycle take place?
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Stroma
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Where does Krebs Cycle take place?
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Matrix of mitochondria
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clair/-e
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clear/bright/light
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