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104 Cards in this Set
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cultivation hypothesis
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proposes that over time, heavy viewers of television develop views of the world similar to what they see on television
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institutional process analysis
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examines the production, management, and distribution of media messages
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message system analysis
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involved the investigation of images in the media content, such as gender roles, portrayal of minorities, and the way certain occupations are depicted
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mainstreaming
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assumes that dominant sets of beliefs, values, and practices exist within cultures
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resonance
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occurs when real-world events support the distorted image of reality shown on television
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diffusion
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the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system
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innovation
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as idea, practice, or object perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption
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diffusion of innovations theory
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states that an innovation diffuses/spreads throughout society in a predictable pattern (an s-shaped curve)
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critical mass
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the point when adoption of an innovation takes off, when the greatest number of people begin to adopt it, and the dramatic upward line on the s-shaped curve begind its ascent
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adopter categories
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the classifications of individuals within a social system on the basis of innovativeness
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innovators
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venturesome and ready to try new things
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early adopters
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integral in local society and are thus sought out for information about innovations, and their advice is highly valued
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early majority
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prefers to deliberate before its members make a decision to adopt; serve the function of legitimizing an innovation
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late majority
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skeptical and cautious about the benefits of adoption
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laggards
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tied to the part, traditional way of doing things and very reluctant to try something new
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self-efficacy
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belief in one's own abilities
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McQuail's organization of common needs for media
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information, personal identity, integration, entertainment
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uses and gratifications
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assumes that individual differences among audience members cause each person to seek out different messages, use those messages differently, and respond to them differently because messages from mm are but ont of many social or psychological factors that cause audience members to select different media fare as well as to experience divergent if not idiosyncratic media effects
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uses and dependency model
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proposes that certain elements in a media system cause people to use and depend upon the media
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salience
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the importance placed upon particular issues
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agenda setting
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a type of communication effect in which these is a strong link between news stories and public issue salience
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gatekeeping
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control over the flow of news information by media professionals
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pseudo-environment
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exists in addition to the actual environment
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agenda building
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differs from agenda setting primarily in its allowance for the collective influence of and reciprocity between public and media in setting the agenda
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theory of cognitive dissonance
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cognitive dissonance occurs when attitude and action become inconsistent with one another; this inconsistency causes the person anxiety that must be resolved; to resolve it, one must bring the attitude in line with the actions
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elaboration likelihood model
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explains the process of persuasion by identifying the likelihood of a person to elaborate cognitively/think vert carefully about a persuasive message
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central route to persuasion
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requires much cognitive effort on the part of the audience member in order to judge the merit of the advocated position or persuasive message
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peripheral route to persuasion
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may occur in any number of ways, none of which involves considerable cognitive effort
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reasoned action and planned behavior model
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holds that behavior is a result of thoughtful reasoning
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automatic activation model
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behavior is more spontaneous and is activated automatically
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the mean world syndrome
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heavy viewers see the world as a much nastier place than do light viewers
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other harmful effects of cultivation theory
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the skinny world syndrome, the posh world syndrome, drugs/alcohol, sex, stereotyping (racism, sexism)
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the mean world index
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an instrument used to measure people's perceptions about violence and aggression in the world
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3 components of cultural indicators project
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cultivation analysis, institutional process analysis, message system analysis
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2 research methods used in studying cultivation
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content analysis, survey methods
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all diffusion studies involve
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an innovation, communication from one person to another, a society/community setting, the element of time
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5 innovation-adoption categories
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innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, laggards
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opinion leadership
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certain people in a community are more interested in innovations, thus more knowledgeable; they influence less knowledgeable neighbors to adopt an innovation
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according to Bandura, diffusion of innovations is viewed in terms of
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symbolic modeling, persuasion, social prompting, motivation
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3 major events that define the diffusion process
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learning, adopting, interacting w/ others in social network
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4 steps in the diffusion process
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knowledge, persuasion, decision, confirmation
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3 diffusion studies
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Wissler's Study of Diffucion of Horses Among Plains Indians; The Iowa Hybrid Corn Seed Study; Diffusion of News
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McQuail's organization of common needs for the media
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information, personal identity, integration, entertainment
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3 functions media serve in society
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surveying the environment, correlation of environmental parts, transmit social norms and customs
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Transactional Model
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2 factors produce and effect: characteristics of the message, psychological orientation of audience member
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gratification-seeking and audience activity model
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particular kinds of gratifications are sought by the viewer and his/her attitude determine the viewer's attention to the content of these messages
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expectancy-value model
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explains a person's behavior, intentions, and attitudes as a function of 2 separate components: expectancy, evaluation
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expectancy
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the probability that an attitude possesses a particular attribute or that a behavior will have a particular consequence
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evaluation
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the degree of affect, positive or negative, toward an attitude or behavioral outcome
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dependancy on a medium is the result of 2 factors
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viewer motives for obtaining gratifications, the availability of viewing alternatives
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assumptions of uses and gratifications
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active audience, media use for gratifications, social and psychological factors, competition & mediation (must pay attention to media messages in order to be influenced by them)
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criticisms of uses and gratifications
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too individualistic, lack of synthesis of research findings, lack of clarity among key concepts, differences in the meaning of key concepts, the active audience and use of self-reporting
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Phases of Agenda-Setting Research
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initial study-chapel hill; replication; contingent factors; who sets the media agenda?
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3 types of studies that fall within parameters of agenda-setting
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media agenda setting, public agenda setting, policy agenda setting
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3 features indicative of the fruitfulness of agenda setting
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steady historical growth of its literature; ability to integrate a number of communications research subfields under a single theoretical umbrella; continuing ability to generate new research problems across a variety of communications settings
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major problems with agenda-setting as a theory
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lack of agreement between conceptual and operational definitions among researchers; ambiguity in terms of methodology; insufficient theory and lack of specification in terms of long-term vs. short-term agenda setting effects
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3 important steps in persuasion
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pay attention to message, comprehend message, accept message
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attitude
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all-important mediator that stands between the acquisition of new persuasive information and subsequent behavioral change
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McGuire's Communication/Persuasion Matrix model
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explained persuasion effects by identifying inputs (ind var) and outputs (dep var)
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cognitive response theory
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an audience member doesn't yield to a new attitude after simply learning a new message; yielding depends upon cognitive responses to message (what he/she thinks about it)
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characteristics of attitude changes resulting from central route
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accessibility, persistency, predictability of behavior, resistance to change
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peripheral cue
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a feature of the persuasion context that allows favorable or unfavorable attitude formation even in the absence of an effortful consideration of the true merits of the object or issue
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3 factors that must be present for persuasion to occur
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source, message, recipient
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cultivation analysis
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research strategy that administers a survey to representative samples and compares answers to "television answers"
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assumption of cultivation
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messages are uniform, viewing is non-selective, television viewing is habitual, tv and viewers interact
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light viewers
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<2 hrs
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heavy viewers
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4+ hrs
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cultivation differential
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the difference between heavy and light TV viewers
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cultural environment movement
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coalition of organizations that believe who gets to tell stories in a culture is important; want to move the public to regain control of the air-waves; viewers declaration of independence
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normal distribution
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symmetrical on either side of the mean value
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probability of measurement lying within 1 standard deviation of the mean
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68%
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probability of measurement lying within 2 standard deviations of the mean
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95%
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probability of measurement lying more than 1 standard deviation below the mean
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16%
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to get an s-shaped curve you
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add up the probabilities from a bell-shaped curve
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adoption
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the process by which a consumer begins to buy and use a new good, service, or idea
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diffusion and adoption process (steps)
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knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, confirmation
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percent of innovators
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2.5
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percent of early adopters
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13.5
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percent of early majority
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34
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percent of late majority
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34
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percent of laggards
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16
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critical mass
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when the number of adopters reaches 5-15% and the process takes off and is probably irreversible
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factors affecting adoption rates
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self-efficacy, status incentives, relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, observability
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs
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pysiological/survival needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, self-actualization needs,
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framing
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the media do more than tell us what to think about. they influence the way we think.
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a frame supplies a context and suggests what the issues is by using:
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selection, emphasis, exclusion, and elaboration
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agenda melding hypothesis
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suggests that the mass media expand our knowledge of agenda options, and that they can also help us find other people who share them
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agenda building
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collective influence of and reciprocity between the public and the media in setting the agenda
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triadic model of agenda effects
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media agenda, policy agenda, public agenda
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2 attitude components
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affective (feeling) and cognitive (belief)
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consummatory behavior
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intrinsically motivated; an end in itself
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instrumental behavior
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extrinsically motivated; a means to some other end
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best predictor of consummatory behavior
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affective component
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best predictor of instrumental behavior
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cognitive component
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affective approaches/peripheral routes
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mere exposure; classical conditioning; operant conditioning; modeling
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mere exposure effect
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tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more after the individual has been repeatedly exposed to them
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classical conditioning
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pavlov; unconditioned stimulus leads to unconditioned response; conditioned stimulus leads to conditioned response
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operant conditioning
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skinner; organism given a reward immediately after target response occurs
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modeling
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bandura; learning a new behavior by observing and imitating that behavior being performed by another person
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verbal learning approach
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focuses on the message itself
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motivational approaches
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heider's balance (POX) theory; cognitive dissonance theory; psychological reactance theory
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heider's balance (POX) theory
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P (person, you) O (other person) X (object, issue); 2 types of relations among elements: unit; sentiment
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reactance
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unpleasant tension people experience whenever they feel that someone is trying to limit their freedom; leads to increased desire for forbidden option
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two factors that influence whether someone can "elaborate a message" (ELM):
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motivation, ability
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