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457 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Anatomy*
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Study of structures and how they relate to other structures
goes beyond dissecting macro/microscopic analysis |
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Physiology
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Study of the function of the body's parts
all 11 organ systems work in unison to sustain human body, state referred to as homeostasis function refers to biochemical reactions occuring inside cells in the human body |
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Cytology
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Study of cells under a microscope
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Histology
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Study of tissues
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Frontal plane
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ventral/dorsal
anterior/posterior |
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Sagittal plane(median plane)
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Z plane
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Transverse/cross-sectional plane
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horizontal cut
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Proximal vs distal
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Higher/ lower
the elbow is proximal to the wrist the knee is distal to the thighs |
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Body
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4 limbs, trunk and head
body erect palms face forward feet slightly apart thumbs point away from body |
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Body cavity(trunk)
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Ventral Body cavity
Dorsal body cavity |
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Ventral body cavity
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thoracic body cavity
abdomino-pelvic cavity two cavities separated by diaphragm |
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Diaphragm
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separates ventral body cavity between superior thoracic cavity and inferior abdominal pelvic cavity
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Thoracic body cavity
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lungs, heart, trachea, esophagus
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Abdomino-pelvic cavity
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most of the digestive, urinary and reproductive organs
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Serous membranes
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separate organs from one another
surround organs in the ventral body cavity responsible for compartmentalization inside the ventral body cavity |
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Pericardial sac
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serous membrane which surrounds the heart in the thoracic cavity
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Pleural sac
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Serous membrane which surrounds the lungs
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Peritoneal sac
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Serous membranes which surrounds the organs in the abdominal-pelvic cavity
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Compartmentalization(functions)
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isolate each organ to prevent interference from neighboring organs
prevent spread of infection from one organ to the other to hold organs in their right anatomical position to protect against trauma(stress, shock) |
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Anorexia
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can lead to disappearance of membrane between ureter and kidneys and can cause the ureters to wrap around the kidneys.
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Dorsal Body cavity
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two subcavities
superior cranial cavity(brain), inferior vertebral(spinal cord) cavity |
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Central nervous system(CNS)
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brain+ spinal cord
located in the dorsal body cavity |
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Meninges
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membranes that surround the brain and the spinal cord
Two different types of meninges |
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Meningitis
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disease that occurs if pathogen enters brain
can be fatal |
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9 v. 4 abdomino-pelvic divisions
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right/left upper quadrants
right/left lower quadrants right hypochondriac region, epigastric region, left hypochondriac region right lumbar region, umbilical region, left lumbar region right iliac region, hypogastric region, left iliac region |
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Levels of structural organization
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Chemical>cell>tissue>organ>organ systems>organismal
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Chemical level
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Atoms combine to form molecules
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Cellular level
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Cells made up of molecules
smallest structures in which biochemical reactions occur Cells are the structural units of organism |
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Tissue level
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tissues consist of similar cells placed together to form sheet like structures with specific functions.
4 types of tissue(muscle, nervous, epithelial, connective) Most cells aggregate to from tissues(except spematozoa and erythrocytes) |
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Organ level
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composed of 2 or more types of tissues which arrange into structures to perform a function
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Organ systems
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consist of at least two different organs that work together closely/ in a complementary way to bring about a desired effect in the human body
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Organismal
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Human body made up of many organ systems(11 organ systems)
all work in unison to sustain the organism> results in homeostasis |
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Symptoms vs. signs
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symptoms are described, internal(e.g loss of appetite)
signs are visible, external |
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Homeostatic imbalances
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lead to diseases
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Homeostasis(organ systems)
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Endocrine and nervous system responsible for homeostasis
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Cytology
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study of cells
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Histology
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study of tissues
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Structure(function)
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functions of a part of the body depends on the structure of the part
(makeup of the part in terms of cell types and tissue types) Structure defines function cellular/ tissue make-up of an organ dictates its function |
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Human
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11 organs systems
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Homeostasis
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relatively constant internal environment maintained by the 11 organ systems even though the external environment is changing
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Homeostatic imbalance
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happens when at least 1 organ is not functioning properly.
if not corrected by the internal regulating systems(endocrine, nervous) it leads to disease |
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Pathophysiology
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Disease caused by homeostatic imbalance
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Atom structure
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2nsquared
2 subatomic nucleus of 2 subatomic particles |
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Biochemical reactions(basis)
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For atoms to achieve stability by having a complete outer-most shell(valence shell)
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Atom subatomic particles
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protons(positively charged), neutrons(not charged), electrons(negatively charged)
number of protons equals the number of electons |
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Atomic number
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refers specifically to the number of protons in the atom
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Electron arrangement
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first shell(closest to nucleus accommodates two electrons
2nd shell 8 electrons 3rd can accommodate up to 18 electrons but because of octet rule the atom achieves stability with 8 electrons |
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Unreactive v. reactive atoms
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Reactive atoms have valence/outermost shells that are not complete
Accept electrons(form chemical bonds) to achieve stability |
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Chemical bonds
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3 types of chemical bonds
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Covalent bonds
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atoms share electrons to achieve stability
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Types of compounds
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inorganic(no carbon chain) vs. organic compounds(carbon chains, non-polar covalent bond)
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Water
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Polar covalent compound
Universal solvent> all biochemical reactions occurring in the cells require water to produce water hydration or dehydration reactions |
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Blood
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slightly warmer than body temperature
water in blood absorbs heat to maintain core value temperature 38C |
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High heat of vaporization
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increase in the body temperature results in reflex sweating
vaporization of water from the surface of the skin requires increase in temperature used for vaporization> decrease in body temperature(cooling) |
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Acids
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H+ or proton donor
hydrogen atomic#1 if electron donated becomes H+(proton) |
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pH
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increase in H+ causes decrease in pH, increase in acidity
= -log10[H+] |
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Bases
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proton acceptors
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Blood pH
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strictlty maintained between 7.35-7.45
critical for the optimal function of enzymes |
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Acidosis
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blood pH under 7.4
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Alkalosis
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blood pH above 7.4
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Buffers
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Chemicals that prevent changes in blood pH
two components(H+ acceptor, H+ donor) |
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Buffer system (situational)
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drop in blood pH>binds H+ to raise blood pH back into normal range
rise in blood pH>releases H+ to decrease blood pH back into normal |
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Salts
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ionic compounds(cation+anion)
dissociates in water into cations and anions NaCl>Na+ + Cl- |
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Electrolytes
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cations and anions
ions which mediate many physiological processes Ca2+> mediates muscle contraction Na+, K+ action potentials> electrical signals produced by neurons for communication |
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Organic compounds
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4 organic compounds
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, |
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Carbohydrates
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hydrated carbon
(CH2O)n n indicates the number of carbons in the chain 3 types of carbohydrates monosaccharides, disaccharide, polysaccharides |
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Monosaccharides
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building blocks of the other two types of carbohydrates
Monosaccharide(CH2O)n n=5 pentose n=6 hexose |
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Pentose sugars I
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2 types of pentose
deoxyribose and ribose found in nucleic acids DNA(deoxyribose) and RNA(ribose) |
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Pentose sugars II
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form part of the nucleic acids and the two types of nucleic acids are named for the type of pentose sugar present.
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Nucleic acids
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deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA) and ribonucleic acid(RNA)
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Hexose sugars
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n=6
3 types of hexose sugars glucose, galactose, fructose GLUFRUGAL |
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Disaccharides
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Second type of carbohydrates
3 types maltose, sucrose, lactose all involve glucose |
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Maltose
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mangag
glucose+glucose |
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Sucrose
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SINGLU Fruit
glucose+fructose |
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Lactose
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LEGAL
glucose+galactose |
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Polysaccharides
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storage forms of glucose in plant cells and in animal cells
in plants: STARCH in animals: GLYCOGEN |
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Carbohydrates(functions in body)
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1-2% of cell mass
cells metabolize glucose via glycolysis to produce energy pentose sugars which form part of the backbone of the nucleic acid glucose attached to lipids>glycolipids glucose attached to proteins>glycoproteins |
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Glycolipids and glycoproteins
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on the surface of cells in the plasma membrane
act as signal molecules or "molecule markers" glycolipids:carbohydrates(glycogen) attached to the phospholipids glycoproteins:carbohydrates(glycogen) attached to integral proteins. |
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Glycocalyx
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glycolipids and glycoproteins rich area on the surface of the plasma membrane
Pattern of arrangement of glucose is unique for each cell type. Changes in pattern indicative of cell turning cancerous > allows pre-cancerous cells to evade immune cells because they can't recognize and attack these cells if there is a change in this area, signal given to immune system makes the surface of the cell fuzzy and sticky |
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Glycogen
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acts as a storage form of energy
body can storee up to 500-600 g of glycogen excess glucose beyond glycogenesis(glucose>glycogen process) turned into fat for storage |
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Lipogenesis
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process by which glucose is converted to fat
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Lipids
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4 types of lipids
neutral fats, phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids lipoproteins |
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neutral fats I
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triglycerides(triacyglycerols)
unsaturated(liquid at room temperature) vs. saturated(solid at room temperature) |
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neutral fats II
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HDL-HLD(low-density)
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Protein combination
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since lipids are insoluble in water, in an aqueous environment(as in the body). Lipids transported as lipoproteins> lipids surrounded by proteins
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Lipoproteins
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3 types(vlDLs)
high amount of lipids>protein major lipid in vlDL>triglycerides |
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Triglyceride
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major lipid in the human diet
transported by vlDLs major lipid in vlDls most concentrated form of stored energy 1 gram of glycogen>glucose>4kcal 1 gram of glyceride>glucose>9kcal |
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VLDLS
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transport triglycerides to the adipose cells in adipose tissue for storage
No limit to fat storage in adipose cells to the body |
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Adipose tissue
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provides protection to organs in body
protection against trauma Heart, eyes..> surrounded by fat holds organs in their right anatomical portion |
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Adipose capsule
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holds/surrounds each kidney to hold the kidney in its right anatomical position
excessive weight loss whereby the adipose capsule around the kidney is depleted, the kidneys drop from their anatomical positions ureter coming out of kidneys twist(kink) to prevent drainage of urine from kidneys>kidneys destroyed(renal failure) |
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Low density lipoprotein(LDLs)
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high amount of lipids>protein
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Cholesterol
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major lipid in LDL
inserts in lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane>stabilize the membrane>"cholesterol maintains the integrity of the plasma membrane" required for the synthesis of all steroid hormones |
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LDL
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transport cholesterol to the plasma membrane to the steroidogenic cells(cells that produce steroid hormones in the body)
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Human body(cholesterol)
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human synthesize 85% of the cholesterol needed
supplement 15% from the diet ingestion of cholesterol above 15% will result in increase in LDL. |
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Increase in LDL
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results in the formation of atherosclerotic plaque in the internal surface of the blood vessels
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Atherosclerotic plaques
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decrease lumen of blood vessels
decrease blood flow through blood vessels(artery) increase in blood pressure |
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Hypertension
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sustained blood pressure increase
if untreated/poorly managed, results in the heart pumping harder against the resistance to blood flow in the blood vessels Heart increases in size to compensate for the increase in resistance if heart increases to a point where its structural units(sarcomeres) are stretched, the heart becomes useless as a pump hear can no longer pump blood "a bigger heart is not necessarily a better pump" |
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Cardiovascular disease
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if atherosclerotic plaque disloges from the internal surface of blood vessel, the plaque becomes free-floating and referred to as an embolus
referred to as a bullet |
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Embolus
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lodges in the smaller blood vessel such as a coronary or cerebral veseel blocking blood supply to tissue beyond blockade>tissue eventually die"necrosis">dead tissue in organism
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Embolus(locations)
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in a coronary vessel>myocardial infarction(MI), heart attack
in a cerebral vessel > ischemia stroke="brain attack" |
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LDL
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Bad cholesterol
increase in LDL causes hypertension, cardiomegala(enlarged heart) , medical condition(heart too big) "bigger heart is not necessarily a better pump" elevated LDL causes myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke |
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High-density lipoproteins(HDL)
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high amount proteins> lipid
major lipid in HDL is also cholesterol Does not sit in blood stream transports cholesterol to the liver for breakdown and elimination from the body Hence HDL "good cholesterol" |
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Phospholipids
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polar/hydrophilic head
non-polar hydrophobic tail |
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Polar head
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refers to phosphorus containing group in the phospholipids
can interact with water |
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Non-polar tail
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2 free fatty acids chain> hydrophobic
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Phospholipids(functions)
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used in the formation or assembly of the plasma membrane
form micelles, transport structures to the aqueous environment in the small intestine |
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Micelles
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transport fatty elements in the small intestine simple columnar cell lining the small intestine
once there, fatty elements diffuse into the simple columnar cells. |
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Eicosonoids
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4th type of lipids
derived indirectly from phospholipids prostaglandins and leukotrienes |
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Aspirin
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prevents formation of prostaglandins (e.g thromboxane A2) by inhibiting cyclooxygenase
prevents blood clots formation recommended when an individual has thrombo-embolic disease |
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Thromboxane A2
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prostanglandins required for hemostasis(stoppage or cessation of bleeding due to a broken blood vessel by the formation of blood clots).
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Proteins(classes)
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fibrous vs. globular proteins
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Fibrous proteins
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usually alpha helices or beta-pleated sheets
insoluble in water, extended/strand-like structural proteins: provide mechanical support and tensile strength as main building material in the body |
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Globular proteins
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compact/ball-likesoluble in water, sensitive to pH/temp. changes
functional proteins: mediate all biochemical reactions occurring in the body achieve tertiary structure |
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Proteins
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3rd type of organic compounds
formed by building block called amino acids 4 structural levels:primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary |
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Primary structure
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indicates the type and the position of the amino acids
sequence of amino acids important for the folding and modification of protein dictates the structural level attained by the protein and hence it indirectly dictates the function of the protein Structure defines function |
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Secondary structural level of protein
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2 types
alpha helices and beta-pleated sheets primary structure is folded and held together by hydrogen bonds to form the two secondary structures some proteins only achieve this structural level(e.g collagen) |
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Third structural level:tertiary
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some proteins attain the tertiary structure
secondary structures are folded to from compact structures with depth, width, length resulting in the 3-dimensional structure of the protein |
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Denaturation
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3D structure unravel destroying the active sites of the protein(e.g globular proteins sensitive to pH and temp.)
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Quaternary structure
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Only a few proteins in the human cell attain the quaternary structure modification(e.g hemoglobin)
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Secondary structural level:cellular
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cells are the structural units of cell organisms hence cells are the functional units of cell organisms.
biochemical reactions occur within cells to sustain organisms. |
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Structure defines function
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The type of biochemical reactions occuring in the cell depends on the subcellular structures of cell at cellular level
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Reproduction
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continuity of species occurs at the cellular level
in the human at time of fertilization sperm(male sex cell), ovum(female sex cell) |
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Human body(SDF)
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200 types of cells based on structure
structure of each cell dictates its function |
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Cell(regions)
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3 regions: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus
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Plasma membrane I
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forms the outer boundary of the cell and is located in between two fluid compartments>extracellular(ECL) and intracellular(ICL) fluids
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Extracellular fluid
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blood plasma(3L) +interstitial fluid(12L)
Intestitial fluid is extra fluid that surrounds cells in the tisue |
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Intracellular fluid
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25L
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Plasma membrane II (structure)
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composed of two rows/parallel sheets of phospholipids
polar heads interact with interstitial fluid and intracellular fluid non-polar tails in core of the plasma membrane/between way from the aqueous environment |
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Membrane proteins
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present on the plasma membrane
peripheral vs. integral protein |
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Peripheral proteins
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attached to integral proteins or the phospholipids on the cytoplasmic face of the plasma membrane
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Integral proteins
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span the plasma membrane exposed on one surface or both surfaces of the plasma membrane
facilitated diffusion if one both surfaces called transmembrane proteins |
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Membrane junctios
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tight junction, desmosome, gap junction
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Tight junction
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fusion of integral proteins in plasma memmbrane of adjacent cells forming an impermeable junction
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Desmosome
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linker proteins extending from plaques on the cytoplasmic surface of the plasma membrane of adjacent cells interdigitate to hold cell together and prevent their separation
anchoring junction |
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Gap junction
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formed by hollow cylinder called connexons
allows for rapid transfer of ion between cells known as communicating junction |
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Membrane transport
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Active vs. passive processes
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Passive processes
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Filtration & diffusion
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Diffusion(3 types)
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facilitated diffusion(plateau saturation can occur)
simple diffusion osmosis |
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Active processes
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active transport & vesicular transport
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Active transport
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movement of solute(ions) against a concentration gradient
need energy in the form of ATP |
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Vesicular transport
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movement of bulky substances enclosed in vesicles(vesicles have a similar structure to the plasma membrane without glycocalyx)
Exocytosis vs. Endocytosis |
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Endocytosis
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phagocytosis
receptor-mediated endocytosis pinocytosis |
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DIffusion
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movement of solute down concentration gradient
solutes moved from area of higher solute concentration to area to low solute concentration |
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Simple diffusion
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lipid soluble solutes(hydrophobic solutes) cross the plasma membrane down their concentration gradient
e.g O2 carried by blood in blood vessels |
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Facilitated diffusion
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substances that are polar, hydrophylic or charged cannot traverse the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane
substances are facilitated by transmembrane proteins to cross plasma membrane exhibits specificity |
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Transmembrane proteins
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also transport or carrier proteins
bind to a specific substance substances that use facilitated diffusion(glucose, amino acid, H2O(polar covalent) |
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Aquaporins
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carrier protein(transmembrane) for H2)
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Facilitated diffusion(saturation)
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when all the carrier proteins are engaged in transporting the substance, saturation is observed
x-axis=concentration y-axis=amount transported |
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Osmosis
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movement of water from area of low solute concentration to area of high solute concentration
movement of water from region of higher H20 concentration to region of lower H20 concentration |
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Plasma membrane
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selective barrier
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Exocytosis
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movement of bulky substances from the interior of cell to the exterior.
e.g hormones, neurotransmitters released from cell via exocytosis |
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Exocytosis(pathway)
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substance to be released enclosed in the vesicle
vesicle moves to plasma membrane and fuses with it area of the plasma membrane ruptures to release the substances to the exterior of the cell |
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Phagocytosis
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solid particles(clumps of bacteria, cell debris)
enclosed in vesicles made by the involution of the plasma membrane vesicle detaches into the cell's cytoplasm vesicle now called phagosome |
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Phagosome
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vesicle in the plasma membrane which coalesces with the lysozomes
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Lysozomes
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cytoplasmic organelle
contains powerful digestive enzymes called lysozymes |
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Lysozymes
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digest the content of phagosome
content destroyed |
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Phagocytes
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special cells that undergo phagocytosis
have an elevated number of lysozomes |
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Pinocytosis(pathway)
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transport of bulk fluid
movement of solution enclose in a pinocytic vesicle into the cell vesicle coalesces with lysozome to digest the vesicle and release the solution all cells in the body use pinocytosis |
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Receptor mediated-endocytosis
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LDL taken into the steroidogenic cells via receptor-mediated endocytosis
LDL binds to LDL receptors(integral proteins) on the surface of the plasma membrane of the steroidogenic cells. LDL-LDL receptor involutes into the cell enclosed in a clathrin-coated vesicle called coated pit exhibits specificity inside cell vesicle lose clathrin and coalesce with lysoszome vesicle digested>content released |
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Clathrin coat
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bristle-like structure
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Filtration
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movement of solution from area of higher pressure to area of lower pressure down a pressure concentration gradient
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Vesicular transport(special types)
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trancytosis, vesicular trafficking
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Trancytosis
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subtances enter cell via endocytosis and released on the opposite side of the cell via exocytosis
e,g substance from the blood into endothelial cells |
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Vesicular trafficking
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intracellular movement of substance
e.g movement of newly synthesized protein from the rough ER to the Golgi apparatus for processing |
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Resting membrane potential(RMP)
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between -50 mV to -100mV
established by the partial/selective nature of the plasma membrane Na+/K+ pump(active transport) reinforces/maintains separation of charges at the plasma membrane |
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Cytoplasm
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Inclusion, cytosol, cytoplasmic organelles
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Inclusions
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only 7 cells in the body such as skeletal muscle fibers, hepatocytes(liver cells), cells of the stratum basale of the epidermis will contain inclusions
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Cytoplasmic organelles
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Mitochondria, ribosomes
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MItochondria
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self-replicating
when the energy demand of the cell increases, the number of mitochondria increases number of mitochondria reflects the energy demands of the cell metabollicaly acitve cells have more mitochondria site for aerobic catabolism of nutrients to yield more ATP. Hence referred to as power house or power plants |
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Mitochondria(glucose processing)
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Aerobic respiration(36ATP)
anaerobic catabolism (2ATP) |
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RIbosomes
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non-membrane cytoplasmic organelles
2 types: free vs. bound number fluctuates between two types cell involved in protein synthesis will therefore have higher ribosomes |
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Free ribosomes
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synthesize the soluble protein which stay inside the cells/ in the cytosol
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Bound ribosomes
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synthesize proteins which are exported to/destined for the plasma membrane and secreted out of the cell with exception of lysozomes
secretory cells(high number of bound ribosomes, prominent rough ER) synthesize lysozomes which are vesicles that bud off the surface of the Golgi apparatus |
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Endoplasmic reticulum(ER)
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smooth vs. rough ER
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Rough ER
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bound ribosomes
associated with the synthesis of phospholipids which are used in the synthesis of the plasma membrane SInce associated with bound ribosomes>involved in the synthesis of the membrane proteins hence, referred to as membrane factory |
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Smooth ER
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no bound ribosomes
prominent in cells involve in detoxification such as hepatocytes(liver cells) kidney cells have prominent smooth ER cells involved in steroid hormone syntesis(steroidogenic) will also have prominent smooth ER involved in glycogenolysis breakdown of glycogen to form glucose-6-phosphate glucose-6-phosphate enters into glycolytic pathway for energy production |
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Skeletal muscle(glycogen)
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store glycogen which undergoes glycogenolysis. Hence skeletal muscle fibers called glycolytic fibers willl have prominent smooth ER
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Hepatocytes(liver cells)
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drug detoxification and glycogenolysis
hence, have prominent smooth ER glycogenolysis in hepatocytes will also yield glucose-6-phosphate have unique enzyme that cleaves off phosphate group |
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Hepatocytes II(glucose)
|
glucose crosses the lipid bilayer of the hepatocytes via facilitated diffusion into blood to provide glucose to neurons in between meals.
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Golgi apparatus
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close association with rough ER
Golgi receives proteins synthesized by bound ribosomes and modifies, concentrates and tags proteins for their destination (secreted, plasma membrane, inside the cells) Hence known as "traffic director" |
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Tagged proteins
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phagocytosis, secretory cells
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Phagocytosis
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abundance of lysozomes
prominent Golgi apparatus |
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Lysozomes
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membranous cytoplasmic organelles that bud off Golgi apparatus
have lysozyems that are involved in glycogenolysis |
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Cells that contain a lot of lysozomes
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phagocytes
bone cells for the breakdown of calcium phosphate crystals to release ionic calcium to blood hepatocytes> skeletal muscle fibers called glycolytic fibers |
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Peroxisomes
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abundant in cells actively involved in catabolism of nutrients where free radicals are produced as by-products of catabolism
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Metabolicallly active cells
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have high number of mitochondria and high number of peroxisomes.
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Bond strenght
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weakest hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, polar covalent bonds,non-polar covalent bonds
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Exam 2
|
Start
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Nucleus
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control center of cell
controls cell activity occurring inside a cell |
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Nucleus(3 areas)
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Nuclear envelope(membrane)
nucleolus(nucleoli) chromatin |
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Nuclear membrane
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similar in composition to plasma membrane
but without glycocalyx has nuclear pores |
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Nuclear pores
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openings in the nuclear membrane
allow for the export of substances from the nucleus into the cytoplasm(e.g mRNA) allow for the import of substances from cytoplasm to nucleus(e.g. proteins) |
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Proteins imported(description)
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enzymes or proteins that form the subunits of ribosomes
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Nucleolus
|
dark, spherical structure in the nucleoplasm
site of/involved in assembly of the ribosomal subunits(small and large) involved in synthesis or ribosomal RNA(rRNA) present in cells actively producing protein |
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rRNA+Proteins imported
|
form the subunit of the ribosome
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Nucleoplasm
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space within the nucleus
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Small and large ribosomal subunits
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exported from nucleus into the cytoplasm through the nuclear pores
fuse in cytoplasm to form the functional ribosome |
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Chromatin
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appears as thread-like beaded structures meandering through the nucleoplasm
composed of structural units called nucleosomes |
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Nucleosome
|
consists of 8 histone proteins with a piece of the thread like-DNA wrapped around them
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DNA
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type of nucleic acids
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Nucleic acid
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fourth type of organic compound in the body
two types based on pentose sugar |
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Two types
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DNA
RNA |
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DNA
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deoxyribonucleic acid
contains the pentose sugar deoxyribose nitrogen- containing A, T, C, G In human cells, double helical structure confined to nucleus |
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RNA
|
contains ribose sugar
A,U, C, G always single stranded exists both in the nucleus and the cytoplasm |
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Chromatin(2 forms in human cell)
|
Euchromatin (Active)
Heterochromatin (Inactive) |
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Cell life cycle
|
series of events involving growth of the cell and subsquent division of the cell
consists of two "sequential" phases |
|
Two sequential phases
|
First phase: Interphase
Second phase: Cell chromosome division |
|
Interphase
|
first phase
G1, S, G2 3 sequence subphases |
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G1 phase
|
protein synthesis occurs to cause cell growth
due to increase in the size of the cell is called hypertrophy During protein synthesis the chromatin will be in the active form euchromatin Centriole replication begins |
|
S subphase
|
protein synthesis resulting in growth of the cell occurs
DNA replicates itself to form two identical DNA molecules |
|
DNA replication
|
DNA uncoils and the 2 polynucleotides chains are separated
each polynucleotide chain acts as a template for the synthesis of a new polynucleotide chain. |
|
Semi-conservative replication
|
the two DNA molecules synthesized via DNA replication each contain an old strand and a newly synthesized strand
|
|
Cell cycle(G2 phase)
|
protein synthesis continues
functional proteins required for the initiation/maintenance of mitosis are produced Replication of centrioles completed |
|
Functional proteins required for cell division
|
maturation promoting factor
cyclin cyclin-dependent kinase(CDK) |
|
Cell division(two types)
|
Cytokinesis
Mitosis |
|
Cytokinesis
|
division of the cytoplasm around each nucleus
formation of two daughter cells |
|
Mitosis
|
nuclear division
if not followed by cytokinesis results in a multinucleated cell |
|
Multinucleate cell
|
can be formed by diffusion of several cells to form one large cell with several nuclei
|
|
Cell growth(during interphase)
|
hypertrophy> increase in cell size
|
|
After mitosis/cytokinesis
|
cell number increases
hyperplasia> increase in cell number |
|
Prevention of hyperplasia
|
prevent DNA replication
Whole proteins |
|
Neoplasm
|
excessive proliferation of cells(hyperplasia)
2 main types benign vs. malignant |
|
Benign
|
located tumors
do not undergo metastasis |
|
Malignant
|
Metastasis
cancer cells get into bloodstream and lymph cancer cells carried to other tissues/organs cancer cells seed and grow in these tissues/organs |
|
Effective cancer chemotherapeutic drugs
|
based on/off the cell cycle
3 methods |
|
First method
|
inhibit/prevent DNA replication in the S phase of interphase
only cells with replicated DNA are capable of mitosis |
|
Second method
|
inhibition of the production of the functional protein in G2 phase
inhibition of the function in the Go proteins >functional proteins produced in the G2 phase for the inhibition/maintenance of cell division |
|
Third method
|
disruption of the spindle fibers(mitotic spindles)
>anaphase is aborted |
|
Cell cycle
|
Interphase
Cell division |
|
Interphase
|
protein synthesis
regulated by DNA in the nucleus of the cell |
|
Protein synthesis
|
chromatin is in the euchromatin(active, extended form)
|
|
Free-messenger RNA(synthesis)
|
Made from transcription of gene(area or part of the DNA)
|
|
Pre-mRNA
|
Has introns and extrons
edited and spliced >mRNA |
|
Introns
|
spliced out/removed
base sequences that are non-sensical(do not code for amino acids) |
|
mRNA
|
made of exons
|
|
Exons
|
amino-acid coding sequence
|
|
Triplet
|
3 base sequence on DNA
|
|
Codon
|
3 base sequence in mRNA
|
|
Anti-codon
|
3 base sequence in tRNA
|
|
tRNA
|
amino acid, anti-codon
since there are 20 amino acids>there are 20 types of tRNA several tRNAs might be attached to the same amino acid due to redundancy in genetic code |
|
Significance of redundancy in genetic code
|
codons in messenger RNA that specify the anti-codons on tRNA
> specify the amino acids in the proteins take care of mistakes that may occur during transcription of the DNA into pre-mRNA accomodate mistakes during the editing/splicing of pre-mRNA |
|
Triplets
|
3 base sequence in DNA transcribed into codons
3 base sequence in mRNA by the anti-codon with attached amino-acid |
|
Anti-codons
|
3 base sequence on the tRNA complementary to the codons
codons are complementary to the triplets >hence, anti-codon will the same as triplet(T becomes U) |
|
4 primary types of tissue
|
Epithelial tissue
Muscle tissue Nervous tissue Connective tissue |
|
Epithelial tissue(2 types)
|
Glandular epithelium
Membranous epithelium |
|
Membranous epithelium
|
simple vs. stratified
squamous, cuboidal, columnar pseudostratified epithelium(simple) transitional epithelium(stratified) |
|
SImple squamous epithelium
|
in the kidney glomeruli(part of filtration membrane)
in the lungs(part of respiratory membrane) lining structures(heart, blood vessel, lymphatic vessels) in circulatory system(endothelium) forms part of the serous membrane(mesothelium); lining of ventral body cavity allows passage of materials via diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important secretes lubricating substances in serosae |
|
Kidney tubules
|
tube-like structures that process urine
|
|
Circulatory system
|
cardiovascular system
lymphatic system |
|
Simple cuboidal epithelium
|
form part of kidney tubules, have microvili on their apical surface
outer covering of ovum called germinal epithelium secretion, reabsorption and protection |
|
Simple columnar epithelium
|
ciliated vs. non-ciliated
|
|
Ciliated simple columnar epithelium
|
bronchi, endowed with goblets cell which secrete mucus
lines fallopian(uterine) tubes |
|
Bronchi
|
tube-like structures leading into the lung
|
|
Cilia((bronchi)
|
beat to create a unidirectional current that moves the mucus laden with bacteria and debris away from the lungs toward the pharynx
|
|
CIlia(fallopian tubes)
|
beat to create a unidirectional current that moves the ova(eggs) toward the uterine wall
|
|
Non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium(1st location)
|
in digestive tract(GI tract), epithelial cells have microvili to increase surface for absorption of nutrients
involved in secretion |
|
Non-cilitated simple columnar epithelium(2nd location)
|
lining ducts involved in secretion
|
|
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
|
simple epithelium with false appearance of stratification
ciliated vs. non-ciliated |
|
Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium
|
in conjunction with goblet cells> referred to as "respiratory epithelium"
because it lines most of the structures in the respiratory system such as the trachea Cilia beat to create an unidirectional current that moves mucus away from the lungs and into the pharynx(throat) |
|
Respiratory epithelium
|
also endowed with goblet cells
Mucus secretion |
|
Cilia(pseudostratified epithelium)
|
beat to create a unidirectional current that moves mucus laden with pathogens and debris away from the lungs and into the pharynx
|
|
Non-ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
|
line the reproductive male ducts(epiddymides, vasa deferentia, ejaculatory duct, urethra)
give protectin to the internal surface of the ducts |
|
Male ducts
|
carry sperm out of testes
|
|
Stratified epithelial tissue
|
at least two layers of epithelial cells
round for the epithelial cell type in the apical(face) surface |
|
Stratified squamous epithelium
|
non-keratinized vs. keratinized
|
|
Keratinized squamous epithelium
|
in epidermis of skin
|
|
Keratinized epithelial cells
|
dead cells impregnated with the tough fibrous proteins called keratin to make the epidermis abrasive resistant
coated with glycolipids(released from laminated granules in stratum granulosum) >make epidermis waterproof |
|
Epidermis
|
best suited as for its function as an abrasive-resistant water-proof outer protective coat
|
|
Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium tissue
|
epithelial cells are not keratinized/waterproof
form part of the mucous membrane that lines structures in the tracts of body >any body organ with at least one opening to the exterior lines entry and exit points of the tracts Protect but not abrasive resistant as the keratinized form |
|
Stratified cuboidal+stratified columnar epithelium
|
rare in human body
line ducts from exocrine glands involved in secretion of products from glands provides some protection to the inner surface of the ducts |
|
Exocrine glands
|
secrete products called secretions
|
|
Transitional epithelium
|
in the urine-transporting ureter
when ureter and bladder are empty> 6 layers of cell with apical cell appearing rounded/cuboidal As urine enters these structures, the transitional eputhelium undergoes a transition from 6 to 3 layers >rounded cells become flat squamous like cells > capacity of structures is increased |
|
Ureters
|
issue of the kidneys
transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder where urine is stored |
|
Glandular epithelia
|
glands composed of epithelial cells ad they secrete products called secretions.
|
|
Glandular epithelial
|
2 types of glands
endocrine vs. exocrine |
|
Endocrine glands
|
ductless glands
release hormones into the extracellular fluid(ECF= interstitial+blood plasma) |
|
Exocrine glands
|
2 types
unicellular vs multicellular |
|
Unicellular exocrine glands
|
no ducts and they release their products into cavities inside the body
|
|
Multicellular exocrine glands
|
equipped with ducts
2 classifications structural vs. functional |
|
Multicellular exocrine glands II
|
simple vs. compound
tubular vs. alveolar tubuloalveolar 5 types |
|
5 types (recognizing them)
|
simple=unbranched ducts; compound= branched ducts
tubular=tube-like secretory proteins; alveolar=flask-like secretory proteins e.g tubuloaveolar multicellular exocrine glands:branched ducts tube-like and flask-like secretory proteins |
|
Connective tissue
|
2nd primary tissue type in human body
|
|
Mesenchyme
|
embryonic tissue from which all types of connective tissue are derived indirectly
gives rise to 4 types of cell |
|
4 types of cell
|
fibroblasts, chondroblasts, osteoblasts, hematopoeitic stem cells
|
|
Fibroblasts
|
secrete the connective tissue class called connective tissue proper
|
|
Fibrocytes
|
matured fibroblasts
do not secrete connective tissue proper based on physiological needs can revert into fibroblasts |
|
Chondroblasts
|
secrete the connective tissue class called cartilage
matured chondroblasts=chondrocytes |
|
Osteoblasts
|
secrete the CT class called osseous or bone tissue
Mature osteoblasts=osteocytes |
|
Hematopoeitic stem cells
|
located inside red bone marrow
secrete CT class blood |
|
CT class blood
|
2 parts
living vs. non-living portion |
|
living portion
|
cells that secrete that CT class
cells and fibers are dispersed inside the ground substance |
|
non-living portion
|
extracellular matrix
|
|
Extracellular matrix
|
2 parts
ground substance fibers |
|
Ground substance
|
interstitial fluid
cell adhesion molecules such as lamina(adhere the cells and the fibers to the ground substances) proteoglycans |
|
Proteoglycans
|
consist of a protein core with carbohydrate-like substances called glycosaminoglycans(GAGs)
|
|
Glycosaminoglycans(GAGs)
|
their level determines the consistency of the ground substance;
fluid gel-like= connective tissue proper semi-solid= cartilage solid=bone tissue |
|
Finer types in connective tissue
|
collagen fibers> white fibers
tough fibers> provide tensile strength to connective tissue elastic fibers> yellow fibers |
|
Elastic fibers(yellow fibers)
|
stretch-recoil properties of the connective tissue
stretches to accomodate the stress/pressure when pressure removed, elastic connective tissue maintains its original size/length when it recoils |
|
4 classes of connective tissue
|
CT proper
cartilage bone tissue blood |
|
CT proper
|
loose CT
dense CT |
|
Loose CT
|
areolar
adipose reticular |
|
Dense CT
|
dense regular
dense irregular elastic |
|
CT proper loose areolar CT
|
widely distributed in body
provides support referred to as the packaging material of the body houses macrophages that are involved in non-specific immune response |
|
Lamina propria
|
Aerolar CT underlying the mucous membrane
|
|
CT proper loose adipose CT
|
surround structures in the ventral body cavity
provide protection against trauma hold structures in right anatomical position store triglycerides that provide the most concentrated form of stored energy |
|
CT proper loose reticular CT
|
in lymphoid tissues
form network structure called stroma in lymphoid organs |
|
Dense connective tissue
|
high level of fibers especially collagen
hence, also known as fibrous connective tissue |
|
Dense regular CT
|
parallel rows of collagen cell facing in the same direction
collagen fibers are regularly arranged found in tendons connect skeletal muscles to bones poorly vascularized |
|
Dense irregular CT
|
collagen fibers arranged in irregular fashion
found in epithelial tissue(epidermis) provides nutrients/O2 to capsules |
|
Dense elastic CT
|
collagen fibers+elastic fibers
stretch recoil properties walls of aorta |
|
2nd class of connective tissue(CT)
cartilage |
Cartilage
|
|
3 types cartilage
|
hyaline
fibrocartilage elastic |
|
Lacunae
|
nutrients/O2 diffusion from the perichondrium to the chondrocytes inside shallow concavities
|
|
Hyaline cartilage
|
forms embryonic skeleton
ossification of embryonic skeleton persists as artificial cartilage, epiphyseal plate and coastal cartilage |
|
artificial cartilage
|
caps the ends of epiphysis in the long bone
|
|
epiphyseal plates
|
located at the junction of the epiphyses and diaphysis
allow for longitudinal bone growth |
|
coastal cartilage
|
connect ribs anteriorly to the sternum
|
|
Fibrocartilage
|
blend between dense regular CT and hyaline cartilage
regularly arranged fibers alternating with rows of lacunae containing chondrocytes |
|
3rd class of connective tissue(osseous)
|
osseous tissue
cell type secretion osseous tissue>osteoblasts |
|
Mature osteoblasts
|
osteocytes residing in the lacunae in the solid matrix
|
|
Ground substance of osseous tissue
|
solid due to
increase in cialis increase in bundle of collagen fiber incorporation of calcium phosphate crystals called hydroxyapatites |
|
Bone tissue
|
living portion
non-living portion |
|
Living portion
|
osteoblasts
|
|
Non-living portion
|
external cellular matrix
|
|
External cellular matrix
|
organic matrix(osteoid)
inorganic matrix(hydroxyapatites) |
|
4th class of CT
|
blood
|
|
Blood
|
living portion
non-living portion |
|
Living portion
|
hematopoeitic stem cells
|
|
Non-living portion
|
extracellular matrix
|
|
Extracellular matrix
|
fluid matrix called blood plasma
soluble proteins called fibrinogen |
|
Fibrinogen
|
when blood clots, forms strands called fibrin strands(visible)
|
|
3rd type of primary tissue
|
nervous tissue
composed of two cell types neurons(nerve cells) supporting cells(neuroglia) |
|
Neuron(structure)
|
cell body also known as the soma=perikargon
contains nucleus + all the cytoplasmic organelles prominent nucleolus>specialized rough ER called NISSLE body active in protein synthesis |
|
Cell body
|
referred to as the biosynthetic region of a neuron
|
|
Nucleus
|
cluster of neuronal cell bodies in the central nervous system
|
|
Ganglion
|
cluster of neuronal cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system
|
|
Dendrite
|
2nd region of neuron
each neuron may have at least 1 dendrite extended from the cell body appear tapered and received electrical signals coming to neurons >referred to as receptive region of neuron |
|
Axon
|
3rd region of neuron
only one axon per neuron uniform diameter lack cytoplasmic organelles including rough ER may have side branching called axon collateral |
|
Telodendria
|
end branches formed by axon branches
end in knob like structures called axon terminals(or boutons, synaptic knobs) |
|
Axon terminals
|
contain vesicles which contain neurotransmitters which are released when axon generates and transmits action potentials
>Hence axon terminal is a secretory neuron |
|
Neurotransmitters
|
chemical signals used by neurons to communicate
|
|
Action potentials
|
electrical signals generated by the axon
a traveling action potential is referred to as a nerve impulse >hence axon is the conducting region of a neuron |
|
Supporting cell(neuroglia)
|
6 types of supporting cells
4 types in the CNS 2 types in the PNS |
|
4th type of primary tissue(muscle tissue)
|
Muscle tissue
|
|
Muscle tissue(3 types)
|
skeletal muscle tissue
cardiac muscle tissue smooth muscle tissue |
|
Skeletal muscle tissue
|
striations
multinucleate under voluntary control |
|
Cardiac muscle tissue
|
striations
uninucleate under involuntary control intercalated disks |
|
Smooth muscle tissue
|
no striations
uninucleate involuntary control |
|
Organ
|
next level of structural complexity in the human body
composed of at least two primary tissues/ 4 types of membrane |
|
Organ system
|
next level of structural complexity
consists of at least two types of organs that perform in a complimentary fashion |
|
Integumentary system
|
skin
accessory structures |
|
Skin
|
epidermis
dermis |
|
Epidermis
|
keratinized stratified squamous epithelial tissue
thickness of the skin differs based on the number of strata in epidermis thin skin vs. thick skin |
|
Thin skin
|
the rest of the skin apart from soles and palms
4 strata |
|
Thick skin
|
soles and palms
5 strata |
|
Strata in epidermis(down to up)
|
stratum basale
stratum spinosum stratum granulosum stratum lucidum stratum corneum |
|
Stratum basale
|
deepest stratum abutting the basement membrane
composed of a single layer of cuboidal cells called keratinocytes undergo mitosis to provide keratinocytes to superficial strata in the epidermis hence also known as the stratum germinative also contains melanocytes and Merkel cells |
|
Melanocytes
|
contain vesicles called melanosomes>vesicles containing melanin
|
|
Melanin
|
released onto the superficial surface of the keratinocytes in the stratum basale
act as a chemical shield to protect the rapidly dividing keratinocytes from harmful effect of UV light, radiation and sunlight |
|
Merkel cells
|
associate with nerve endings(inside the papillary layer of the dermis) to form touch receptors called Merkel discs
|
|
Merkel disks
|
act as receptors for light touch
|
|
Stratum spinosum
|
immediately superior to stratum basale
contains Langerhans' cells, intermediate filaments called tonofilaments contains keratinocytes which are connected by desmosomes Keratinocytes(do not separate) appear spiky when epidermis is subjected to histological chemicals(harsh conditions) |
|
Desmosomes
|
anchoring junctions
|
|
Langerhans' cells aka epidermal dendritic cells
|
specialized macrophages
engulf and destroy pathogens that enter when epidermis is breached. |
|
Skin
|
protective function
|
|
Melanin
|
chemical protection
|
|
Langerhans' cells(in spinosum)
|
biological/ immunological protection
|
|
Stratum spinosum
|
exhibits high tensile strength
desmosomes and tonofilaments |
|
Stratum granulosum
|
immediately superficial to the stratum spinosum
keratinocytes etrude all cytoplasmic organelles and fill the cytoplasm with two types of granules lamellated vs. keratohyaline granules |
|
Lamellated granules
|
contain glycolipids
|
|
Keratohyaline granules
|
contain keratin
|
|
Glycolipids and keratin
|
released onto superficial layers
|
|
Statum lucidum(thick skin only)
|
stratum immediately above stratum granulosum
keratinocytes in this stratum are filled with glycolipids keratin and these cells appear lucid hence the name stratum lucidum |
|
Stratum corneum
|
most superficial layer of skin
20-30 layers of dead cell filled with keratin and coated with glycolipids tough, abrasive-resistant coat(=keratin) water-proof(=glycolipids) when intact first line of defense against pathogens keratinocyes in this layer are cornified(impregnated with keratin) and coated with glycolipids |
|
Dermis(2 subdivisions)
|
superficial papillary layer
deeper reticular layer |
|
Superficial papillary layer
|
composed of dense irregular
abut the reticular lamina of the basement membrane beneath epidermis surface has dermal papillae houses blood vessels(because areolar CT highly vascularized) has touch receptors called meissner's corpscules |
|
Dermal papillae
|
houses nerve endings(couple with Merkel cells to form Merkel discs at the epidermal-dermal junction)
|
|
Deeper reticular layer
|
composed of aerolar CT
|
|
SKin
|
low pH at the surface of the cell
|
|
Acidic mantle of sweat
|
antibodies=neutralize/immobilize microorganisms
demidin= retards microbial growth acid environment |
|
Eccrine sweat glands
|
secrete sweat
|
|
Apocrine sweat glands
|
present at birth but become active after puberty
secrete thick, viscous fluid containg proteins and fats |
|
Proteins and fats
|
catabolized by pathogens on the skin surface to give off body odor
hence apocrine sweat glands referred to as sudoriferous glands |
|
Merocrine mode of secretion
|
used by both eccrine and apocrine sweat glands
|
|
Apocrine sweat glands
|
misnomer because the apocrine sweat glands use the merocrine mode of excretion
|
|
Merocrine mode of secretion
|
secretory cell undergoes exocytosis to release products
|
|
Holocrine mode of secretion
|
secretory cell ruptures to release accumulated products
|
|
Apocrine mode of secretion
|
apex of the secretory cell pinches off to release accumulated products
|
|
Function of hairs(of 3 types of hair)
|
eyelashes-protect the eyes
hair on scalp- protect the scalp and the underlying blood vessels vibrissae-nasal hairs, filter coarse particles in inhaled air |
|
Function of hair as an insulator
|
due to action of the arrector pili muscle to hair follicle
cold vs. hot weather |
|
Cold weather
|
arrector pili contracts
pull hair from oblique to upright position layer of air trapped by hair strands hair strand upright-poor conductor of heat and hence act as an insulator |
|
Hot weather
|
increase in sweat production
because water has high heat capacity for evaporation heat is provided by the body to evaporate sweat from the surface of the skin hence cooling the body maintain a stable/core body temperature |
|
Thermoregulation
|
Hot and Cold weather control systems
|
|
Skeletal system
|
consists of bones(organs) and cartilage
|
|
Bones(4 classes)
|
4 classes based on shape and structure
structure defines function long, short, irregular and flat bones FLISH |
|
Short bone
|
specialized type of short bone embedded in tendon are referred to as sesamoid bones(=patellae=knee caps)
|
|
Irregular bones
|
any bone that doesn't fit into any of the above 3 classes
|
|
2 types of bone tissue(long bone)
|
spongy vs. compact bone
|
|
Spongy bone
|
composed of flattened needle like structures called trabeculae(as the structural units of spongy bone tissue)
has large opening spaces filled with blood vessels and red bone marrow |
|
COmpact bone
|
composed of structural units called osteons
|
|
Osteons
|
arrange in lamellae
each is composed of concentric tubes called lamellae. hence compact bone is also known as lamellae(dense) bone |
|
Arrangement of collagen
|
arrangement of collagen is opposite in adjacent lamellae to prevent twisting of bone
|
|
Long bone(structure)
|
larger than it is wider
2 expanded ends called epiphyses diaphysis(shaft) is between the epiphyses |
|
Diaphysis
|
collar of compact bone enclosing a space called the medullar cavity
|
|
medullar cavity
|
contains red bone marrow in the long bones of children
contains yellow bone marrow in the long bones in adults |
|
Epiphyses
|
contain spongy bone tissue in the inside covered by thin layers of compact bone tissue
ends are capped in thin layer of hyaline cartilage(articular cartilage) |
|
Spongy bone tissue(epiphyses)
|
contains red bone marrow irrespective of age(adults or children)
|
|
Long bone(2 types of connective tissue)
|
associated with two types of connective tissue
periosteum vs. endosteum |
|
Periosteum
|
exterior of diaphysis(double layered)
attached to external surface of compact bone of diaphysis by tough-cord like structures called Sharpey's fibers(perforating) outer fibrous layer vs. inner osteogenic layer |
|
Outer fibrous later
|
dense irregular CT
|
|
Inner osteogenic layer
|
2 types of cells
osteoblasts vs. osteoclasts |
|
Osteoblasts
|
derived from mesenchyme secrete bone(osseous) tissue
|
|
Osteoclasts
|
large mutlinucleated cells that caus bone breakdown(resorption)
|
|
Volkmann's canals
|
horizontal canals used by blood vessels( from the fibrous layer of the periosteum) to enter into the compact bone
join the vertical blood vessel in the core of the osteon |
|
Core of the osteon
|
referred to as the HArversian canal
small hair-like canals extend from blood vessel in the Harvesian canal to the lacunae(where osteocytes reside) |
|
Maintenance of bone tissue
|
nutrients and O2 diffuse from blood in the canaliculi to the osteocytes in the lacunae
blood vessels that enter the compact bone extend into the spaces in the spongy bone |
|
Epiphyseal plates
|
plates at the metaphysis(junction of the diaphysis and epiphyses)
plates of hyaline cartilage present in the metaphysis in the long bone of children plates allow for longitudinal bone growth in adults, ossify(turned into bone tissue) leaving a line called the epiphyseal line |
|
Hormones
|
influence longitudinal bone growth
mostly growth hormones levels of growth hormones in children are higher than in adults |
|
Architecture of 3 other tyes of bone
|
spongy bone tissue with trabecullae covered by endosteum sandwiched between thins plates of periosteum covered compact bone
|
|
Appositional bone growth
|
second type of post natal bone growth
occurs in all bones(as opposed to longitudinal bone growth which occurs only in long bone) |
|
Bone formation outpaces bone resorption
|
osteoblasts secrete new bone tissue unto the external surface of the bone
osteoclasts in endosteum(lines inner surface of bones) cause a slight resorption of the bone in the internal surface of the bone Overall increase in diameter |
|
Bone remodeling
|
occurs throughout life
indicates bones are dynamic organs in the body bone formation and resorption occur at a constant rate |
|
Bone remodeling(functions)
|
maintain calcium homeostasis
levels of ionic calcium(Ca2+) strictly maintained between 9mg-11mg/100 cc of blood |
|
Ionic calcium levels
|
directly/indirectly affect cell physiological processes occuring in the body
|
|
Bone remodeling(control)
|
hormonal control
mechanical control |
|
Hormonal control
|
2 hormones important in calcium homeostasis
parathyroid hormone Calcitonin |
|
Hypoalcemia
|
stimulus for PTH release
ionic levels below 9mg/100 cc of blood |
|
PTH(actions)
|
stimulate osteoclasts indirectly
cause bone resorption stimulates calcium reabsorption from tubular fluid in kidneys stimulate synthesis of hormone called 1.25(OH2)VitD |
|
1.25(OH2)Vit D
|
only hormone to directly stimulate calcium from small intestine
|
|
Bone(calcium storage)
|
bone stores about 1 kg of calcium in the form of hydroxyapatites
|
|
Calcitonin
|
stimular for calcitonin is hyperalcemia
blood calcium level above 11mg/100 cc of blood |
|
Calcitonin(actions)
|
stimulates osteoblasts to secrete new bone tissue
mineralized incorportation of hydroxyapatites in the newly synthesized bone tissue calcium moved from the blood to the bone tissue stimulates calcium excretion in urine>decrease in blood calcium levels |
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Joints
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3 structural classes
fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints, synovial joints |
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Fibrous joints
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bones are united by fibrous connective tissue
dense regular CT 3 subtypes of fibrous joints sutures, syndesmoses, gomphoses |
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Sutures
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only present in skull
in children amphiarthrotic joints(allow for expansion of brain) in adults synarthrotic joints(form immovable vault to protect developed brain) |
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Syndesmoses
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2 types
cord of dense connective tissue(regular CT) called ligaments sheet-like dense regular CT called inter-osseous membrane considered amphiarthrotic joints |
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Gomphoses
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short periodontal ligaments connect the root of teeth to alveolar sockets in mandible and two maxillae
considered synarthrotic joints |
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Cartilaginous joints
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joints cavity absent
bones united by cartilage 2 types synchondroses vs. symphyses |
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Synchondroses
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hyaline cartilage unites the bones
generally considered synarthrotic joints ex: epiphyseal plates |
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Symphyses
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fibrocartilage unites the bones
amphiarthrotic joints ex:intervertebral discs |
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Synovial joints
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articular cartilage
joint cavity articular capsule ligaments that reinforce synovial joints |
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Articular cartilage
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caps the ends of epiphyses
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Joint cavity
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space that contains synovial fluid which acts a lubricant to reduce friction
only in synovial joints |
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Articular capsule
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double-layered
outer fibrous capsule-dense irregular CT inner synovial membrane |
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Ligaments that reinforce synovial joints
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capsular/intrisic
extracapsular intracapsular |
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capsular/intrisic
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-located inside fibrous capsule(e.g. medial collateral ligaments)
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Extracapsular ligaments
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located external to the articular capsule(ex:tibial collateral ligaments)
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Intracapsular ligaments
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located deep to articular cartilage
ex: anterior cruciate ligament(ACL) blow to the front of extended knee tears ACL |
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Synovial joints(active joints)
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joints that are often used
equipped with unique features |
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Active joints(features)
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menisci, bursae-reduce friction
tendon sheaths-improve fit to minimize wear and tear at the joint as one ages all are diarthrotic joints |
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Shape of surface of the bone
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dictates the type of movement allowed
6 types plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle joints ball-and-socket joint |
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Plane joint
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articulating surfaces are flat, movement allowed, known as gliding
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Hinge joint
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one articular surface is cylindrical and the other is a through;
movement/extension, which increases the angle of a joint and flexion(decreases the angle of a joint) |
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Pivot joint
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one atircular surface is round and the other surface in a sleeve or ring
movements rotation(atlantoaxial joint) allow for movement of the head from side to side to motion no |
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Condyloid joint
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ellipsoidal
one articular surface is oval protusion and the other surface is an oval depression movement-extension, flexion, abduction(movement of a limb away from trunk of body) adduction(movement of a limb toward trunk of body) circumduction(movement of a limb to describe a cone in space) atlanto-occipital joint(yes motion) |
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Saddle joint
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only in thumbs
one articular bone has both convex and concave surfaces and the other articular bone has both(in reverse) movement:flexion, extension, abduction, adduction |
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Ball and socket joint
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one articular surface is a spherical head and the other surface is a cuplike socket
ultimate diarthrotic joints-all movements are allowed |