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231 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Who is Wilhelm Wundt?
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Set up the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.
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What did Structuralists believe?
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That consciousness was made up of basic elements that were combined in different ways to produce different perceptions.
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What is introspection?
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Involves reporting on one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.
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Who is Edward Titchener?
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He set up the first psychology lab in the U.S.
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What did Functionalists believe?
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That consciousness, and behavior in general, helped people and animals adjust to their environment.
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Focus on understanding how physiological and biochemical processes might produce psychological phenomena.
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Biological Approach
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Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors stem from the interaction of innate drives and society's restrictions on the expression of those drives.
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Psychodynamic approach.
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Who said the most important urges are the sexual and aggressive ones?
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Sigmund Freud
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Explain behavior primarily in terms of learned responses to predictable patterns of environmental stimuli.
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Behaviorist approach.
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Who studied classical conditioning?
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Pavlov.
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Who studied operant conditioning?
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Skinner.
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The "cause" is represented by what?
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Independent variable.
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The "effect" represents what?
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Dependent variable.
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What is a blind study?
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If subjects do not know whether they're receiving the drug or the placebo.
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Who does not know about the placebo in a double-blind study?
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The subjects and the experimenters.
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Involves assessing the relationship between two variables.
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Correlational studies.
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Means that high scores on one variable tend to be paired with high scores on the other variable.
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Positive relationship.
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Means that high scores on one variable tend to be paired with low scores on the other variable.
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Negative relationship.
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Describes the strength of a relationship.
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Correlation coefficient.
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Involve in-depth analysis of only one person.
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Case Studies.
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Studied as it occurs in real-life settings.
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Naturalist observation.
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Agreement among observers is a measure of what?
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Inter-judge reliability.
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Concerned with how communication happens and how behavior is influenced by it.
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Behavioral neuroscience.
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Detect heat, or light, or touch and then pass information about those stimuli on to the brain.
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Sense receptors.
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Pathways for communication of sense receptors.
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Neurons.
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Take in information from body tissues and sense organs, and transmit it to the spinal cord and brain.
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Sensory Neurons
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Send information in the opposite direction.
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Motor Neurons.
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Communicate with other neurons.
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Interneurons (associative neurons)
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Short, bushy fibers that take information in from outside the cell.
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Dendrites
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Long fibers that pass info. along to other nerve cells, to glands, or to muscles.
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Axons
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A fatty tissue that surrounds the axon and accelerates tranmission of info.
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Myelin sheath.
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Electrically charged atoms.
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Ions
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Maintained because the axon's membrane won't let positive ions into the cell unless the cell receives a signal from the dendrites.
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Resting potential
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The neuron pumps out the sodium ions and can then fire again.
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Refractory Period
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Junction where the end of one neuron meets the beginning of another.
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Synapse
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Helps control arousal and sleep.
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Serotonin
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Drugs that mimic a particular neurotransmitter or make more of it available by blocking its reuptake.
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Agonists
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Drugs that block.
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Antagonists
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Includes the sensory and motor neurons.
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Peripheral nervous system.
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System that carries info. from muscles, sense organs, and skin to the central nervous system and messages from the system to the skeletal muscles.
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Somatic nervous system
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Regulates the body's internal environment.
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Autonomic nervous system
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Prepares you for action
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Symphathetic nervous system.
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Deactivates the systems mobilized.
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Parasympathetic nervous system.
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Controls breathing and heartbeat.
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Brainstem
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Receives info. about touch, taste, sight, and hearing
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Thalamus
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Controls arousal and sleep
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Reticular formation
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Coordination of voluntary movement
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Cerebellum
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Processes memory
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Hippocampus
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Influences fear and anger
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Amygdala
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Influences hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior
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Hypothalamus
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Influences the release of hormones from other glands
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Pituitary gland
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Motor, cognitive, and sensory processes.
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Cerebral cortex
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Play a part in coordinating movement and in higher level thinking
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Frontal lobes
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Where is the Broca's area and what does it affect?
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Frontal lobe, speech speed.
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Where is the Wernicke's area and what does it affect?
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Frontal lobe, understanding.
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Sensor of touch.
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Pariental Lobes
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Involved in hearing
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Temporal lobes
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Areas involved in vision.
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Occipital lobes.
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Area of psychology that addresses the topic of sensation.
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Psychophysics.
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Minimum stimulation needed for a given person to detect a given stimulus.
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Absolute threshold.
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Smallest difference a person can detect.
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Just noticeable difference (difference threshold)
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Threshold increases in proportion to the intensity or magnitude of the stimuli.
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Weber's Law
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Predisposes us to attend to stimuli that matter to us and not attend to stimuli that don't.
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Sensory Adaptation
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Illustrates that our ideas about reality have to be chosen, organized, and interpreted, not simply detected.
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Selective attention
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Shows that the mind fills in the gaps in our sensations.
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Gestalt psychologists
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Require both eyes.
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Binocular cues
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One cue to distance.
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Retinal disparity.
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The extent to which the eyes must turn inward to view an object.
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Convergence
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Requires only one eye.
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Monocular cues.
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Fact that parallel lines appear to converge as they get farther away.
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Linear perspective.
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Refers to the apparent movement of stable objects as we ourselves move.
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Motion parallax (relative motion)
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Influence judgments of depth.
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Texture gradients
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Predispositions to perceive one thing and not another.
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Perceptual sets
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From simple sensory receptors to more complex neural networks.
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Bottom-up fashion
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From expectations, motives, and contextual cues to raw sensory data.
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Top-down fashion.
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State of being aware
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Consciousness
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Predictability stems from their being synchronized with the parts of the day.
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Circadian rhythm
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Brain waves cycle through a series of ___ stages every ___ minutes or so.
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Five, 90
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Electrical currents in the brain as shown graphically on an EEG.
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Brain waves
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The five stages of sleep.
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Hypnogogic, sleep spindles, delta waves, slow-wave sleep, and stage 2 repeats
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The sleeper appears calm and relaxed despite a great deal of cortical activity.
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Paradoxical sleep.
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Recurring difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep.
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Insomnia
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Sudden uncrontrollable attacks of sleep during waking hours
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Narcolepsy
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Stop breathing intermittently during sleep
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Sleep apnea
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The images that actually appear to the dreamer.
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Manifest content of a dream.
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A "forbidden" sexual or aggressive wish that the dreamer would repress if awake.
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Latent content.
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Brain's neurons fire randomly during sleep in this theory.
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Activation-sythesis theory.
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Claim that dreams are a way to consolidate information.
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Information-processing
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Heightened state of motivation
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Hypnosis
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A split in consciousness
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Dissociation
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Produce a state of consciousness that is different from "normal" consciousness by mimicking, inhibiting, or stimulating the activity of neurotransmitters.
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Psychoactive drugs.
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A relatively enduring change in behavior that is the product of experience.
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Learning
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Which group first began studying learning and wanted to focus only on observable events
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behaviorists
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Expectations and the ability to represent events mentally.
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Cognitive factors
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Occurs when the repeated presentation of a single stimulus produces an enduring change in behavior.
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Non-associative learning
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Occurs when the repeated or long-lasting presentation of an intense stimulus increases the response to a weaker stimulus.
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Sensitization
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Involves the learning of a connection either between two stimuli or between a response and a stimulus.
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Associative learning
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Produces changes in responding by pairing two stimuli together.
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Classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning)
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Involves learning an association between a stimulus and a response that follows it.
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Operant conditioning.
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Always involves a decrease in the target behavior.
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Punishment
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Rules for determining when reinforcement will be given.
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Reinforcement
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We can learn operant behaviors indirectly.
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Observational learning
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Ability to learn vicariously
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Models
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Can be thought of as the mental activities involved in solving problems.
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Cognition
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Mental rules of thumbs
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Heuristics
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You're asking yourself how similar or "representative" one event is of a class of events.
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Representativeness heuristic.
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Involves judging the likelihood that an event will happen in terms of how readily you can bring an instance of it to mind.
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Availability Heuristic.
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Refers to people's tendency to look for info. that will support their beliefs.
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Confirmation bias
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The inability to see new uses for familiar objects.
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Functional fixedness.
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Rules for combining morphemes in meaningful ways.
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Syntax.
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One-word stage.
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Babbling stage
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Two-word stage.
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Telegraphic speech
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Attempted to explain language development in terms of operant conditioning principles.
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B.F. Skinner
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Claimed that children have a language acquisition device.
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Noam Chomsky
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A fleeting awareness of whatever the senses have detected.
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Sensory Memory
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The info. that can be kept in the mind long enough to solve problems.
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Short-term memory (working memory)
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Deliberate, though sometimes automatic and unconscious, methods used for getting info. into long-term memory.
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Mnemonic strategies.
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Rehearsal
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repetition
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Chunking
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Grouping
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About how well you solve problems.
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Intelligence.
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First to develop an intelligence test.
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Alfred Binet.
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Mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100.
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Intelligence quotient.
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He labeled general intelligence "g".
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Charles Spearman
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What is nature vs. nurture?
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"Nature" refers to our biological, genetic heritage, whereas "nurture" refers to environmental effects on our development.
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The psychological process that energizes and directs behavior.
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Motivation
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Often used to illustrate how these factors can impact the occurrence and expression of a motive.
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Hunger
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The part of the brain that seems to be most important for monitoring hunger-related signals.
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Hypothalamus.
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Responsible for stopping hunger.
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Ventromedial Hypothalamus
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Responsible for increasing hunger.
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Lateral hypothalamus
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The weight our own body works to maintain.
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Set point
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An increase or decrease in heart rate.
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Physiological arousal.
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Perceiving a stimulus that has relevance to one's well-being will generate arousal and a subjective emotional experience simultaneously.
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Cannon-Bard theory
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The perception of a stimulus causes arousal first, which then causes you to feel an emotion.
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James-Lange theory
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The activity of facial muscles tells us whether we're happy or not.
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Facial Feedback Hypothesis
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Says that the quality of an emotional experience depends on how arousal is labeled.
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Stanley Schacter's Two Factor theory
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Deals with systematic, predictable changes in thinking and behavior over the lifespan.
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Developmental pscychology
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Involve comparing people of different ages at the same point in time.
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Cross-sectional studies
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Means that it cannot be determined whether differences across age groups are due to changes in age itself, or to differences in the periods of time.
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Confounded
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Involve tracking the behavior of a single cohort over long period of time.
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Longitudinal studies
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In which people of different ages are followed over a long period of time.
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Cross-Sequential study
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Describes how children's thinking changes as they get older.
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Piaget's theory
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Children think only in terms of what they can sense and what they can do.
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Sensorimotor stage
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The understanding that objects continue to exist even when their presence can't be sensed.
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Object Permanence
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Don't use logical reasoning, but instead reason intuitively.
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Pre-operational stage.
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The understanding that some quantitative aspects of objects don't change just because the object's appearance has been transformed in some way.
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Conservation
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They have trouble seeing things from other people's perspectives.
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Egocentric
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Think logically but only about things that are "concrete"
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Concrete operational stage
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Thinking, or the logic of science, can think abstractly.
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Formal Operational
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A child understands the world in one particular way and then sees something happen that can't fit into that understanding.
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Disequilibrium.
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Involves understanding events in terms of your current scheme.
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Assimiliation
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Relies heavily on the idea that tension is necessary for change.
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Erikson's theory of psycho-social development
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Sharing wisdom and experience with other people.
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Generativity
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Taking care of only their own deteriorating physcial and mental abilities.
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Stagnation.
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Share the common beliefs that people's behavior is motivated largely by unconscious needs.
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Psychoanalytic theories
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Describes people as having two fundamental needs or motives: sex and aggression.
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Freud's theory of psychoanalysis
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Refers to the biological part of our personality.
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Id
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Do what feels good and do it now.
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The Pleasure Principle
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The rational, realistic part of our personality involves learning, problem-solving, and reasoning.
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Ego
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Do what will get our needs met and without getting hurt.
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The Reality Principle
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The social part of our personality that allows us to get along with other people.
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Superego
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Do what's right, and don't do what's wrong.
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The Morality Principle
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From the Freudian perspective, these objects are symbolic or metaphorical reminders of things the person wants, but can't allow themselves to have.
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Phobias
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Periods of life defined by parts of the body that do the most to make you feel good.
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Psychosexual stages
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Often used as an example of this approach.
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Carl Roger's self theory
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How people think about themselves and their relations with the world around them.
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Cognition
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How people think, how people behave, and what their environment is like
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Reciprocal determinism
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Measuring the many, many ways in which people differ, reducing those many ways down to a more manageable subset.
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Individual-difference approach
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Big Five Personality traits
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Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism
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Used to identify traits for which scores correlate highly with each other.
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Factor analysis
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Stage child enters after oral and anal stages.
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Phallic stage.
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The branch of psychology that deals with psychological disorders.
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Abnormal psychology
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Unusual feelings of dread, fearfulness, or terror.
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Anxiety Disorders
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Feel persistent, but are unaware of its source.
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Generalized anxiety disorder
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Involves unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of terror that have a sudden onset.
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Panic Disorder
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Characterized by depression, mania, or both.
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Mood Disorders
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Characterized by feelings of hopelessness, sadness, and discouragement.
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Major depressive disorder
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Feature the fragmentation of personality.
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Dissociative disorders
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Unable to remember personally relevant info.
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Dissociative amnesia
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Travels away from home or work suddenly and unexpectedly, can't recall his or her past.
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Dissociative fugue
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Multiple personality disorder
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Dissociative identity disorder
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A disorder involving symptoms of psychosis.
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Schizophrenia
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Exhibit delusions of grandeur or persecution.
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Paranoid Schizophrenics
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Exhibit disorganized speech or behavior, and innappropriate emotional responses.
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Disorganized schizophrenics
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Exhibit odd motor activity.
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Catatonic Schizophrenia
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Senselessly repeating back words someone else has just said.
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Echolalia
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Exhibit symtpoms of any type of schizophrenia, but do not meet the specific criteria for having one of the other forms.
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Undifferentiated schizophrenia
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The individual has physical symptoms usually associated with some sort of disease or physical disorder.
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Somatoform disorders.
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Involve impaired motor functioning or impaired sensory functioning that can't be attributed to any neurological problems.
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Conversion disorders
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Characterized by patterns of behavior or thinking that are clearly and substantially inconsistent with the expectations of one's culture.
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Personality disorders.
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A person who is extremely suspicious and distrustful.
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Paranoid personality.
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Tramples on the right of others, is impulsive, and lacks a conscience.
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Antisocial personality.
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Has trouble maintaining relationships and has a wide fluctuations in both self-image and emotional behaviors.
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Borderline personality disorder.
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Needs undue admiration and praise.
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Narcissistic personality
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Focuses on the possibility that unconscious conflicts cause anxiety that is dealt with in a maladaptive way.
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Psychoanalytic approach.
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Explains abnormal behavior in terms of abnormal patterns of thinking.
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Cognitive approach.
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The problem behavior itself is the problem.
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Learning or behavioral approach.
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Problems arise when urges come up against social pressure to squelch them.
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Psychoanalytic thinking
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Involves having the individual relax as much as possible and say whatever comes to mind.
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Free Association
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Emphasis is more on what's happening now and what the client wants to change for the future.
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Humanistic therapies.
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Assume that something going on inside an individual is responsible for abnormal behavior.
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Cognitive therapies.
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Rely on using principle of classical and operant conditioning to change problem behaviors directly.
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Behavioral therapies
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Involves conditioning a new response that's incompatible with an old response.
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Counterconditioning.
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A procedure where anxiety is gradually replaced with relaxation.
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Systematic desensitizaiton.
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Where a person goes straight into the fear-provoking situation without intermediate steps.
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Flooding
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An unpleasant response becomes associated with what would normally be a pleasant activity.
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Aversive Conditioning.
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Rely on drugs or surgery.
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Biological or medical therapies.
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Has to do with how the behavior of individuals is influenced by other people.
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Social psychology
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Refers to how we process info. about other people.
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Social cognition.
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Deals with types of explanations people generate for others' behavior.
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Attribution theory
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Explain behavior in terms of factors inside a person.
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Dispositional attributions
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Explain behavior in terms of factors outside the person.
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Situational attributions
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Observers tend to attribute others' behavior to dispositions.
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Actor-observer difference.
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If you behave in a way that's inconsistent with your attributes, it will produce tension.
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Cognitive dissonance theory.
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About the direct and indirect pressures exerted by others to change someone's attitudes or behaviors.
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Social influence.
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Asked participants to judge which of three lines on a piece of paper was the same length as the fourth line.
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Solomon Asch
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Pressure to comply with the norm.
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Normative Social Influence.
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What other people do simply provides info. about how to behave.
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Informational social influence.
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Demonstrated that people can be incredibly susceptible to the demands of authority.
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Stanley Milgram.
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Aggression is always the product of frustration and frustration always leads to aggression according to this.
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Frustration-aggression hypothesis.
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Our goal in life is to maximize our rewards and minimize our costs according to this.
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Social-exchange theory. (Minimax principle)
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We're obligated to help people who need our help.
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Social responsibility norm.
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We're obligated to help those who have helped us.
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Reciprocity norm.
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Refers to the consistency of people's scores on a test.
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Reliability.
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Coefficients larger than ___ are generally considered adequate evidence of reliability.
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+.70
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How well does the test correlate with itself?
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Internal consistency
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Measure of reliability.
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Cronbach's alpha
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Whether the test looks as though it's measuring what it's supposed to.
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Face validity.
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Refers to how well scores on the test predict actual behavior.
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Predictive validity.
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Refers to whether scores on the questionnaire are related in expected ways.
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Construct validity.
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Most common occuring score.
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Mode
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Allow you to make inferences about populations based on the characteristics of your sample.
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Inferential statistics.
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