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66 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Ethnocentrism |
idea that we focus in on our group as being good and others as bad |
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Robber's Cave studies
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- brought a young group of boys together in a naturalistic setting |
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Realistic Group Conflict theory
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- intergroup relations are driven by structures in the environment
- groups dislike each other because both want scarce resources |
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When does contact between groups reduce hostility?
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- equal status: everybody needs to have equal standing to get along well with one another
- situation must involve cooperation - situation must be informal enough to allow group members to get to know one another as individuals - interaction must permit disconfirmation of negative stereotyped beliefs - persons involved must view one another as typical of their respective groups |
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What is Social Identity theory? How does it explain group conflict?
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- individuals strive to maintain positive social identity
- positive social identity is based on favorable comparisons between ingroups and outgroups - when social identity is unsatisfactory, individuals will strive to leave the group and join some more positively distinct group or try to make their own group more positively distinct |
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Optimal Distinctiveness Model
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- need for assimilation (belongingness, fitting in) |
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What are social dilemmas?
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- if everyone in a group acts in their own self-interest then the whole group suffers |
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Stereotype
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BELIEFS about a certain group of people; cognitive component
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Prejudice
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ATTITUDES; having a negative attitude towards a person because they belong to a certain social group; emotional component
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Discrimination
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BEHAVIORS; putting stereotypes and prejudices to action
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What are the origins of stereotypes?
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Cognitive, motivational, social
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Cognitive origins of stereotypes
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- categorization: we very quickly pick up on race, age, gender, etc. |
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Motivational origins of stereotypes
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- social comparison
- belief in a just world: bad things happen to bad people and good things happen to good people |
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Social origins of stereotypes
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- social roles: stereotypes can develop out of the social roles that people have ben assigned
- group conflict: putting people in competition sometimes creates negative stereotypes - media portrayal |
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Social outgroup homogeneity effect
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the perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other than they really are, as well as more similar than the members of the in-group are
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Social comparison
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- upward social comparison: comparing ourselves to someone who is better off than us; can motivate us to improve but can also be a blow to our self-esteem
- downward social comparison: thinking about ourselves relative to others who are worse off; makes us feel better and boosts our self-esteem (we put others down in order to make ourselves feel better) |
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
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the case whereby people 1) have an expectation about what another person is like, which 2) influences how they act towards that person, which, 3) causes that person to behave in a way consistent with people's original expectations
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Subtypes
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Having different stereotypes based on the situation; ex: having one stereotype concerning women but having a different sterotype concerning women lawyers
2 views on subtypes: - Weber and Crocker: maintains stereotypic belief; can put exceptions into a subtype and still protect the main stereotype - Brewer: replaces stereotypic belief; if you break a stereotype down into several subtypes then you're getting closer to individualization |
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Automatic vs controlled processes
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Devine's theory that stereotypes are automatic and personal beliefs are controlled
- people grow up knowing the stereotypes of their culture (automatic) - people might know the stereotypes but not believe them (controlled) |
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How are stereotypes maintained?
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- priming: effects our attitudes more if it reinforces our stereotypes
- attribution: we make attributions that help us protect our stereotypes |
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Consequences of stereotypes
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- stereotype vulnerability
- tokenism/solo effects |
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Stereotype vulnerability/threat
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- fear of confirming a negative view of your social group
- might lead to: 1) distraction from task, 2) poorer performance |
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Token/solo effects
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- when there's only one of your "category" in a group (ex: only 1 woman)
- can lead to cognitive deficits because people feel the extra burden of representing their group |
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Models of stereotype change
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- societal reforms or historical events
- bookkeeping model: gradual change as you have more and more positive experiences with the group you have stereotyped (can also happen in the negative direction) - conversion model: abrupt change in views |
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Reduction of prejudice at the intergroup level
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- decategorization/individuation
- recategorization - cross-cutting identities (illustrated through Robber's Cave study) |
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Basis for and effects of jigsaw classrooms
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a classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children by placing them in small desegregated groups and making each child dependent on the other children in the group to learn the course material and do well in the class
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Modern prejudice
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outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes
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Subtle sexism
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2 types of subtle sexism: |
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Individualistic cultures
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- view the self as independent
- "masculine" traits: assertiveness, uniqueness, etc. - Western cultures |
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Collectivist cultures
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- interdepent self; the self is shaped by relationships
- "feminine" traits: nurturing, empathy, etc. - Eastern and Latin American cultures |
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Effects of individualism and collectivism
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- basis of self-esteem: relationships vs achievements
- interdependent selves tend to be more sensitive to context and role obligations (less likely to show fundamental attribution error) - emotional expression: independent individuals are more likely to feel and express strong emotions (interdependent individuals are less likely to do so because they do not want to create a social disruption) - self-presentation: self-enhancement is less acceptable to interdependent individuals |
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Criticisms of the individualism/collectivism approach
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- fosters prejudice by grouping masses of people together
- ignores within-culture differences - globalization is diluting culture somewhat - what people really feel vs what they tell you - value spin: idea that one way is better than another (verges on negative stereotypes) - research issues: translation |
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Culture of honor
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- cultural complex that has an extreme concern with reputation and insults; male autonomy and freedom |
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Attitude
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evaluations of people, objects, and ideas (the degree of like or dislike)
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How are attitudes measured?
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- self-report: just ask the person; bogus pipeline
- physiological measures - behavioral measures: lost-letter technique |
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How do attitudes relate to behavior? When will attitudes predict behavior?
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- principle of aggregation: a general attitude may not predict a specific behavior but it will eventually
- the more specific the attitude, the better at predicting the behavior - strong attitudes succesfully predict behavior |
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LaPiere study
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- LaPiere went to several establishments in the 1930s with a young Chinese couple (there was prevalent prejudice against the Chinese during this time period) |
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When does behavior determine attitudes?
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if there is cognitive dissonance
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Cognitive dissonance theory
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a drive or feeling of discomfort, orignally defined as being caused by holding two or more inconsistent cognitions
- feel a motivation to reduce dissonance; uncomfortable feeling |
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Dissonance effects
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- insufficient justification (Festinger and Carlsmith study with tedious tasks)
- spreading of alternatives: enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives - severity of initiation (sex talks) |
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Self-perception theory
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- people try to figure out what their attitudes are by looking at their behavior
- overjustification ("marker study") |
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Dissonance theory vs self-perception theory
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Dissonance:
- clear knowledge of atttitudes from the beginning - attitude-discrepant behavior - production of a motivational state Self-perception: - vague attitude awareness - behavior not very discrepant - no motivational state produced |
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Yale Model
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"Who says what to whom (and with what effect)?"
Attention (Source) Comprehension (Message) Yielding (Recipient) Retention (Channel) |
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Credibility
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Is the source trustworthy? Is the source an expert?
- if a source is credible, it's more persuasive |
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Sleeper effect
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- with time, credible sources become less persuasive
- with time, low credibility sources become more persuasive |
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One-sided vs two-sided arguments
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in most cases, two-sided arguments are more persuasive; if poeple are NOT going to hear opposite arguments, however, then one-sided arguments work
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When do fear appeals work?
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- danger is serious
- dangerous outcome is probable - response recommended will work - target is able to make the recommended response (has to be able to do what you're asking) |
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Elaboration Liklihood Model
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an explanation of the two ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change: centrally, when people are motivated and have the ability to pay attention to the arguments in the communication, and peripherally, when people do not pay attention to the arguments and are instead swayed by surfcae characteristics (e.g., who gave the speech) |
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Central route to persuasion
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focus on main arguments (naive scientist) |
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Peripheral route to persuasion
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focus on peripheral cues; focus on things that don't really pertain to argument, only surface factors (cognitive miser)
- produce weaker attitudes |
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What determines whether a central or peripheral route to persuasion will be taken?
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based on presence of motivation and ability; if have both then central route, if missing one then peripheral route
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Resistance to attitude change
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- forewarning: can have a response ready
- reactance: can occur when we feel that our freedom is being threatened - inoculation: cultural truisms; making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position - selective perception: we have some control over what we're exposed to |
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Subliminal advertising
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words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgments, attitudes, and behaviors
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Theory of planned behavior
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the idea that the best predictors of a person's planned, deliberate behaviors are the person's attitudes toward specific behaviors, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control
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Political psychology
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interface of psychology and political science |
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Sears critique of over-reliance on college samples
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compared to older adults, college students are likely to have:
- less crystallized attitudes - less formulated senses of self - stronger cognitive skills - stronger tendencies to comply with authority - more unstable peer-group relationships implication is that a broader set of people should be used in experiments |
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Accountability
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- expectation that you will have to justify your beliefs, feelings, or actions to others
- might shift our beliefs or make our argument more complex depending on the audience's beliefs |
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On-line vs memory based evaluation of candidates
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- can evaluate candidates based on a running tally (running evaluation which we adjust as we encounter new information)
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Media effects: hypodermic model, minimal effects, modern approaches
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- hypodermic model: media is like a big needle that injects beliefs into its viewers
- minimal effects model: media does not tell us what to think; does not effect us at all - modern approach: sophisticated techniques, subtle effects, agenda-setting |
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Agenda-setting
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media can tell us what to think ABOUT; decides what the focus will be
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Personalities of leaders (Winter study)
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- looked at speeches and public announcements to find an underlying theme
- 3 motives: affiliation (concern for close relationships), achievement (concern for excellence), power (concern for impact and prestige) - coded first inaugural address and matched it up with coding of cultural documents - match of president and nation predicted popularity, electoral success - mismatch predicted presidential greatness |
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Darwinian tradition of emotion
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- emotions have adaptive functions: emotions come out of actions
- universality of emotions (at a certain level) |
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Display rules
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culturally determined rules about which nonverbal behaviors are appropriate to display
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Basic emotions
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Izard criteria for basic emotions:
- specific neural substrate - characteristic facial expression or neuromuscular expression - distinct subjective quality |
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James-Lange theory
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Perception -> bodily response -> emotion |
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Schachter two-factor theory
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the idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it |