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151 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
When Ali first had corrective braces put on his teeth, the pressure and tension were very uncomfortable. Now however, he barely notices his braces. Why?
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The pressure is constant, his sensory receptors have adapted
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What is necessary for sound?
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A medium such as air, fluctuations in the pressure of a medium, and vibrations of an object.
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Ashanti cannot hear. All of the structures in her hearing system work, except for those that transduce the sound waves. Ashanti's _______ do not work; therefore, she has _______ deafness.
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Hair cells; nerve
Hair cells are the transduction mechanisms for hearing |
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Place theory proposes a _________ code for sensing pitch; the frequency-matching theory proposes a __________ code.
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Spatial; temporal
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Contra-lateral representation in sensation means that?
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the cortex builds sensory representations of the opposite side of the world.
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What structures are necessary for the transduction of light energy?
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photoreceptors, rods and cones, and photopigments
Transduction is the conversion of stimulus energy into neural energy |
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A villain is trying to obliterate the visual system of his arch nemesis. If he destroys the _________, then his nemesis will be unable to see color.
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iodospin (it initiates the transduction process)
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which of the following would cause the least amount of lateral inhibition to occur?
A) Looking at a spiderweb covered with dew in the morning sun B) Looking at a zebra's black and white stripes C) Looking at a green refrigerator's surface |
C
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While Becky watched a basket ball game on TV, Cindy asked her, 'Is this OK for dinner?" Based on Becky's peripheral vision she said okay only to find that she was given Brussels sprouts. Becky realized that her visual acuity was not very good because she was relying primarily on _________?
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rods
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Women are more likely than men to have four distinct photo-pigments, which means that women?
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will have a richer experience of color than people who do not
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A projection-screen TV has a separate box that aims green, red, and blue lights at the screen, by combining the different lights in differing amounts, it fits best with the __________ theory of color vision
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trichromatic
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When Julia says that the color red tastes tart and the color pink tastes sweet to her, she is describing her sense of?
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synesthesia
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Which sense does not send info through the thalamus on its way to the cortex?
A) Hearing B) Vision C) Olfaction D) Somatosensory |
C
axons leaving the olfactory bulb travel to many parts of the brain, especially the amygdala |
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the taste sensation that enhances other senses is known as?
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umami
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For the auditory sense, the physical dimension of wave amplitude corresponds to the psychological experience of _________; the physical dimension of wave frequency corresponds to the psychological experience of __________.
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loudness; pitch
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Which theory suggests that pitch is determined by the location of movement along the basilar membrane?
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Place theory
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The process of lateral inhibition allows the brain to see
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more distinct contrasts in stimuli
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Evelyn put on sunglasses that had a red tint. After wearing them for a few minutes she took them off and everything she saw now had a green tint. The cells directly responsible for this after-image were Evelyn's ________ ________. The theory that best explains the after-image is the __________ theory.
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ganglion cells; opponent-process
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The brain structure through which each eye's optic nerve crosses over to the opposite side of the brain is the
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optic chasm
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What are accessory structures?
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structure that first comes into contact with stimulation from the environment and collects this information
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What are sensory receptors?
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specialized cells within each accessory structure which respond stimulation by generating a neural signal
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Temporal Code
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Attributes of a stimulus are
coded using changes in the timing of neural firing |
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Spatial Code
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Attributes of a stimulus is
coded in terms of the location of firing neurons relative to their neighbors |
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conduction deafness
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– The three tiny bones of the middle ear are fused together, which prevents accurate reproduction of vibrations.
– Surgery can break bones apart or replace them with plastic ones. Hearing aids can also help. |
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Nerve deafness
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– Results when the auditory nerve or the hair cells are damaged—this can happen with extended exposure to loud noise
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Place Theory (spatial code)
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- hair cells at a particular place on the basilar membrane respond most to a particular frequency of sound
- but doesn’t work for low frequencies because there are no auditory nerve fibers that have very low preferred frequencies |
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Frequency Matching Theory (temporal code)
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- firing rate of an auditory nerve matches a sound wave’s frequency
- we can only code like this up to 1,000 Hz (1,000 peaks /s) because neurons cannot fire more than 1,000 action potentials per second |
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Light: intensity
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how much energy light has
determines brightness |
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Wavelengths
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distance between peaks
determines color |
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Lateral inhibition
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photoreceptors inhibit nearby cells, enhance contrast
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Opponent-process theory
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Explains afterimages
• Visual elements sensitive to color are grouped into 3 pairs, where each pair member inhibits the other. • Red - green • Blue - yellow • Black - white |
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Perception: Computational
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bottom-up processing: start with details about something then arrive at a conclusion
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Perception: Contructivist
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top-down processing: expectations, experience-dependent, and filling the missing thing in
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Perception: Ecological
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automatic processing
cares about the function of the world around us |
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overt attention
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move your eyes
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covert attention
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shift attention
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Absolute Threshold
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how much energy is needed to trigger a conscious experience
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Signal Detection Theory
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intensity of the signal
capacity of sensory system amount of background "noise" |
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Just-Noticeable-Difference: Weber's Law
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the smallest detectable difference in energy is a constant fraction of stimulus intensity.
Smaller K: a sense is more sensitive to differences Larger K: a sense is less sensitive to differences |
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Fechner’s Law
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- a low-intensity stimulus needs small energy change to seem twice as great
- a high-intensity stimulus needs large energy change to seem twice as great |
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Perceptual Organization
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-Simplicity: Organize elements to provide simplest perception
-Likelihood: Organize elements based on most likely arrangement |
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Dualism
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The mind and body are separate.
The soul interacts with the brain through the pineal gland. |
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Materialism
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The mind is the result of interactions of neurons in the brain. Mind = brain.
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Conscious
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Mental activity that you are aware of.
Ex) Thoughts |
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Nonconscious
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mental activity you are not aware of.
Ex) regulating blood pressure |
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Preconscious
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mental activity you are not aware of but can become aware of.
Ex) recalling what you ate for dinner the night before |
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Unconscious
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mental activity that influences consciousness, but is not conscious
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Priming
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• People respond faster and more accurately to stimuli they have seen previously, even if they cannot recall seeing the stimuli
• Behavior can be influenced by previous experiences without our awareness |
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Sleep
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consciousness ranges from alert (waking state) to passive (deep sleep), when most external stimuli are blocked from senses
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Altered states of consciousness
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changes in mental processing cause differences in perception/behavior
– psychoactive drugs – hypnosis |
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Insomnia
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Fatigue resulting from little sleep or difficulty falling asleep
• Sleep difficulty must last longer than one month to count as insomnia |
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Narcolepsy
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an abrupt switch from active waking state to REM sleep
• since muscle tone is lost in REM sleep, narcoleptics collapse when switch occurs |
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Sleep apnea
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Breathing stops briefly during sleep
• Awaken just long enough to resume breathing • Don’t feel rested |
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Hypnosis: state theory
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altered state of consciousness
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Hypnosis: role theory
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subjects under hypnosis act in accordance with hypnotized role (they simply comply)
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Hypnosis: dissociative theory
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subjects split various aspects of their behavior and perceptions from the ‘self’ and share some control with the hypnotist
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Antagonist
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prevent neurotransmitters from binding with receptors
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Agonist
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mimic effects of neurotransmitters
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Effects of caffeine
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Increases behavioral and mental
activity |
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Effects of opiates
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(opium, morphine, heroin, codeine)
Induce sleep and relieve pain… but highly addictive! |
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Effects of hallucinogens
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(LSD, ketamine, marijuana)
Create a loss of contact with reality; alter aspects of emotion, perception, thought. |
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Reliability of a test:
Test-retest Alternate form Split-half |
Test-retest: Compare same test twice
◦ e.g., Take WAIS in 2005 and 2007 Alternate form: Compare 2 forms of test ◦ e.g., Take WAIS and then Stanford-Binet 5 Split-half: Compare 2 comparable halves of the test ◦ e.g., Compare WAIS 1/2 verbal to 2/2 verbal |
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Validity of a test
Content Construct Criterion Predictive |
Content: provide a measure of the entire domain
◦ e.g., does it actually measure all “types” of intelligence? Construct: actually measure the theoretical construct ◦ e.g., does it measure intelligence at all? Criterion: correlate with another criterion ◦ e.g., IQ score correlate with independent measure? Predictive: predict future performance ◦ One type of criterion validity ◦ e.g., can IQ predict success at school, work? |
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Binet-Simon intelligence scale
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Mental age
A child's level of mental development relative to others If MA (mental age) = CA (chronological age), then “regular” intelligence |
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Instinct theory
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-Human behavior is explained by automatic, unlearned responses to particular stimuli (instincts)
-Consistent with the evolutionary approach -Behaviors are present because they were adaptive (they promoted individual survival and reproduction in our ancestors’ environment) |
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Drive reduction theory
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-Much motivation arises from constant imbalances in homeostasis
-Homeostasis is the tendency for organisms to keep their physiological systems at a stable, steady level by constantly adjusting themselves in response to change -Need (Imbalance) Drive (prompt to action) -Primary drives: arise from basic biological needs -Secondary drives: are learned |
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Optimal Arousal theory
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-Arousal is a general level of activation that is reflected in several physiological systems, such as brain activity, heart rate, muscle tension
-Arousal Theory: People are motivated to behave in ways that maintain an optimal level of arousal for them individually |
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Incentive theory
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-Behavior is directed toward attaining desirable stimuli and avoiding unwanted stimuli
---Why are there differences between people then? -Different values placed on incentives (cognitive, cultural, social influences) -Different physiological states |
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Approach-approach
Avoidance-avoidance Approach-avoidance Mutiple approach-avoidance |
Approach-Approach: two options, both desirable
--party 1 vs. party 2 Avoidance-Avoidance: two options, both undesirable --pay a fine vs. go to jail Approach-Avoidance: one option, desirable & undesirable qualities --date at a nice restaurant: elegant but $$$$ Multiple Approach-Avoidance: more than one option, desirable & undesirable qualities --college 1 vs. college 2 |
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James Peripheral theory
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-Certain emotional states are associated with different patterns of anatomic changes
-Lie detector tests based on this theory -Making a certain face seems to create matching anatomic reaction and emotional sensation -What about people who can’t feel peripheral responses? |
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Cannon's Central theory
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We experience emotions right away
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Cognitive Theories
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Autonomic nervous system
• Cold and clammy hands • Increased perspiration • Dilated pupils • Increased heartbeat • Knots in your stomach |
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Personality: Psychodynamic approach
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--Based on case studies
--Little empirical evidence Basic tenets: --Constant internal mental struggle (psycho – mind, dynamic – movement) --Unconscious processes influence behavior |
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Psychodynamic: Freud's Id, ego, and superego
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--Id: “Pleasure principle”
--Superego: Morals --Ego: Resolves the conflict (“reality principle”) |
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Psychosexual stages
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1) Oral
Pleasure center Mouth Fixation Focused on oral stimulation Dependency 2) Anal Pleasure center anus Fixation Anal retentive Anal expulsive 3) Phallic (4-6 yrs) Pleasure center genitals Oedipal/Electra complex Parental Identification 4) Latency (7-11 yrs) Pleasure center: none Sublimation of sexual and aggressive urges 5) Genital (12+ yrs) Mature sexual relationships |
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8 defense mechanisms
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• Repression: Make it unconscious
• Denial: Claim it doesn’t exist • Rationalization: Make it sound reasonable • Displacement: Direct it towards someone else • Reaction Formation: Do the exact opposite • Projection: Attribute it to someone else • Compensation: Make up for it some other way • Sublimation: Channel it into something productive |
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Type theories
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--Type – a qualitatively defined category.
--You belong in one group or another. Examples: Freud: orally fixated, anally fixated Caspi: well-adjusted, maladjusted over-controlling, maladjusted undercontrolling |
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Trait theories
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--Trait – a characteristic attribute intrinsic to the person, stable across time and situations
--Often thought of as dimensions, with variability from low to high Examples: Relaxed------Tense Optimistic-----Negative Neat-----------Sloppy |
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Gray's approach inhibition theory
--Behavior Approach System (BAS) --Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) |
--Behavior Approach System (BAS)
• Affects sensitivity to rewards • High on this – seek rewards! --Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) • Affects sensitivity to punishments • High on this – avoid punishments! |
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Social-Cognitive approach
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--Characteristics of individuals are acquired through learning
--also emphasizes the influence of social situations on personality, cognitive factors such as expectations, and personal dispositions |
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Rotter's Expectancy theory
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--Internal control – expect events to be controlled by their own efforts
--External control – expect events to be controlled by forces over which they have no control |
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Humanistic approach
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--Everyone has a unique world view
--Innate motivation for growth |
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Roger's Self theory
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Personality is shaped by both our actualization
tendency and by others’ evaluations of us --Self-concept: the way one think of oneself --Congruence --Condition of worth: feeling experienced when a person, not their behavior, is evaluated |
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Personality Disorder: Odd-ecentric cluster
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Paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal
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Personality Disorder: Anxious-fearful cluster
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Dependent, obsessive-compulsive, and avoidant
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Personality Disorder: Dramatic-erratic
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Histrionic, narcissistic, borderline, and antisocial
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Anxiety Disorders
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Characterized by distressing, persistent, or disruptive anxiety, or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder
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Excessive, lasting anxiety, not on one object or situation
►Free-floating anxiety for > 6 mos ►Worry, irritable, tired, can’t concentrate |
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Panic Disorder
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--Recurrent, uncued panic attacks
--Followed by worry about having more --Panic attack = period of intense anxiety with abrupt onset --physiological symptoms: e.g. sweating, heart pounding --psychological symptoms: e.g. fear of dying or going crazy |
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Diathesis; Stress
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Diathesis:
--inherited biological characteristics -- parental modeling of anxious behavior --lack of perceived control ► Stress: exposure to traumatic event ongoing stressors ► Combine to produce anxiety disorders |
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Schizophrenia
Symptoms |
A severe and disabling pattern of disturbed thinking, emotion, perception, and behavior
Symptoms: ►Disorganized thought and language -Neologisms -loose associations, clang associations -Word salad (“Colorless green ideas sleep furiously”) ►Content of thought is disturbed -Ideas of reference -Delusions of grandeur -Thought broadcasting -Thought withdrawal -Thought insertion |
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Types of Schizophrenia
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Paranoid
– delusions of grandeur or persecution Disorganized – delusions, hallucinations, incoherent speech, neglected personal hygiene Catatonic – Disordered movement, immobility to wild excitement Undifferentiated – Don’t fit easily into other subtype Residual – not currently displaying symptoms |
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Dissociative Disorders
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Sudden, usually temporary
disruption in person’s memory, consciousness or identity. |
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Types of Dissociative Disorders
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►Dissociative Amnesia
Sudden loss of memory ►Dissociative Fugue Sudden loss of memory AND the assumption of a new identity in a new locale ►Dissociative Identity Disorder (i.e. multiple personality disorder) A person reports having more than one identity --Most DID patients suffered severe abuse in childhood --Rare, but on the rise |
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Somatoform Disorders
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Psychological problems that take on a physical form, but have no physical cause
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Somatoform Disorder: Conversion Disorder
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►Loss of some physical ability w/o physical cause (blindness, deafness, paralysis, numbness, fainting..)
-->Lack of concern -->Not malingering |
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Hypochondriasis
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Strong, unjustified conviction that one has a serious disease
-->Seeks treatment -->Becomes expert |
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Causes of Somatoform Disorders
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• Childhood experiences (learning?)
• Severe stressors • Bio/psychological traits (self-consciousness, sensitivity) • Sociocultural factor |
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Major Depressive Disorder
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►Sad, hopeless for 2 weeks or more
►Anhedonia – loss of pleasure |
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Dysthymia
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►Similar to major depression, but symptoms less severe and longer lasting
-->Duration at least 2 years |
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Bipolar 1
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►Alternates between deep depression and mania
--Mania – active, elated emotional state ►Symptoms: --Inflated self-esteem --Decreased need for sleep --More talkative than usual --Flights of ideas or racing thoughts --Extreme distractibility --Increase in goal-directed activity --Excessive involvement in high risk, pleasurable activity |
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Bipolar 2
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►Alternates between deep depression and hypomania
--Hypomania – less extreme mania |
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Cyclothymic Disorder
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►Alternates between depression and hypomania, but less severe
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Causes of mood disorders
--Biological --Psychological |
►Biological
-->genetic influence -->malfunctioning mood centers of the brain -->neurotransmitters: norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine ►Psychological -->learned helplessness -->attribution style -->what do you do when you start to feel depresses |
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Types of therapists:
Psychiatrist Psychologist Master's Degree Level Paraprofessionals "Quacks" |
• Psychiatrist
– M.D., specialized in the treatment of mental disorders • Psychologist – Doctoral degree in clinical or counseling psychology • Master’s Degree level professionals – Clinical social workers, marriage and family therapists, licensed professional counselors • Paraprofessionals – Psychiatric nurses, substance abuse counselors • “Quacks” – Talk show hosts, your friend the psych major |
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Psychodynamic Approach
Theory Goal of therapy Therapist's Role Duration |
• Theory of Disorder
– Unconscious conflict (id, ego, superego) • Goal of therapy – Bring the conflict to light • Therapist’s role – Neutral expert – Exploring the meaning of the past • Duration – 3-5 times a week for years |
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Psychodynamic approach
Theory (detailed) Goal (detailed) |
• Theory of Disorder
– most of the problems stem from clients’ relationships with others (e.g. mothers or other early caregiver) – and how those problems continue in interactions with new people • Goal – direct client’s attention to evidence of certain conflicts – develop a nurturing relationships with the clients |
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Humanistic Approach
Theory Goal of therapy Therapist's Role Duration |
• Theory of disorder
– Clients have been prevented from self-actualization (e.g. distorted perceptions or lack of awareness of feelings) • Goals of therapy – self-acceptance – remove distorted perceptions blocking self-awareness and actualization • Therapist’s role: an equal and a confidant |
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Humanistic Principles
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--People have free will and choice over how they think, feel, and behave, as well as the capacity for self-actualization
-->Assumptions of Humanistic psychotherapy 1. Treatment is an encounter between equals 2. Clients will improve on their own, given the right conditions 3. Ideal conditions: client feels fully accepted and supported 4. Clients must remain responsible for choosing how they will think and behave |
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Humanistic: Client-centered therapy
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• Methods
– Unconditional positive regard – Empathy • Active listening • Reflection • Congruence (genuineness) |
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Humanistic: Gestalt Therapy
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• Goal of therapy
– Unify the self • Methods – Focus on the present – Help patients become aware of their feelings – Directly point out inconsistencies – Analysis of body language – imaginary “conversations” with others or themselves |
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Cognitive-Behavioral therapy
Theory Goal of therapy Therapist's Role Duration |
• Theory of disorder
– Disorders come from errors in thinking (illogical or irrational beliefs) • Goal of therapy – Correct the beliefs • Therapist’s role – Teacher, logician |
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Behavioral therapies
Theory Goal of therapy Therapist's Role Duration |
• Theory of disorder
– people’s actions are based on learning, conditioning, and past experiences • Goal of treatment – use classical/operant conditioning principles to change behavior • Therapist’s role • teacher/trainer • Focus on here and now, and the current problematic behaviors |
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Behavioral therapy methods
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• Systematic desensitization: ------Teach relaxation technique and cognitive strategies
--Develop a fear hierarchy --Gradual exposure to the feared object • Modeling • Flooding • Positive reinforcement:The desired behavior is followed by pleasant stimulus • Extinction:Remove the reinforcer that normally follows the behavior • Punishment:The unwanted behavior is followed by an unpleasant stimulus • Aversive conditioning:Associate the unwanted behavior (simultaneously) with nausea, painful electrical shock, or other unpleasant stimulus |
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Biological treatments: Psychoactive drugs
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--Psychoactive Drugs
◦ Neuroleptics or antipsychotics (schizophrenia) ◦ Antidepressants (depression) ◦ Lithium and anticonvulsants (bipolar) ◦ Anxiolytics (anxiety disorder) |
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Social Comparison: Downward comparison
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--compare ourselves to people we think are worse than ourselves
--protects or enhances self-esteem |
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Social Comparison: Upward comparison
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--comparing ourselves to people we think are better than
ourselves. --maintain self-esteem (your opponent is too good) --or lead to relative deprivation (Hey, why is he getting more than I do? That’s not fair!) |
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Forming Impressions
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--We tend to assume others hold similar attitudes and values to ourselves
--So, we are inclined to like other people --But negative information attracts more attention and is given more weight than positive information in the shaping of first impressions |
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Lasting Impressions: Self-fulfilling prophecy
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--We tend to be overconfident with our judgments
--We tend to act in ways that elicit behavior consistent with our impression ◦ Self-fulfilling prophecy |
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Internal Attribution
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the behavior is due to characteristics of the person
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External Attribution
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the behavior is due to aspects of the situation
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High Consensus
Low Consensus |
High Consensus: Mike wants to ask Jessica out on a date. Other guys have asked Jessica out on a date too.
Low Consensus: Others have not asked Jessica out on a date. Do other people behave in the same way as Mike? |
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High consistency
Low consistency |
Does Mike behave like this repeatedly?
High Consistency: when he does behave like that repeatedly Low Consistency: he does not behave like that repeatedly |
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High Distinctiveness
Low Distinctiveness |
High: when he only asks Jessica out on a date
Low: when he asks others out on a date as well |
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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Attribute others’ behaviors to internal factors
-->You see a girl talking on the phone while driving -->She’s reckless |
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Actor-observer bias
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Attribute our own behavior to external factors, others’
behavior to internal factors You talk on the phone while driving -->It’s an emergency!” Another girl does it -->She’s reckless!” |
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Self-serving Bias
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--Attribute our own success to internal factors, our own failures
to external factors --When you DO talk on the phone as you drive “It’s an emergency!” --When you DON’T talk on the phone as you drive "I’m a conscientious and careful driver!” |
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Ultimate Attribution Error
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--Attribute negative behavior of ingroup and positive behavior of outgroup to external factors
--It’s a girl in your sorority on the phone “It’s an emergency!” --A girl from another sorority NEVER talks on the phone while driving “No one likes her anyway!” |
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Elaboration Likelihood Model
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--Central route to attitude change:
◦ Message is important --Peripheral route to attitude change: ◦ Person giving the message is important |
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Cognitive Dissonance Theory
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--People want their thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes to be
consistent with their behaviors • When behavior-attitude inconsistency causes discomfort -- People change their attitude to reduce discomfort • Attitude changes mostly occur when people publicly engage in behaviors that are inconsistent with their privately held attitudes |
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Intimate Relationship and Love
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•Passion=strong & intense
feelings, longing to be with, infatuation, physiological arousal •Intimacy = emotional closeness, bonding, sharing •Commitment = decision to love & maintain a long term relationship with someone |
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Motivational Theory
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- Prejudice may be the result when people’s motivation to enhance their own self-esteem causes them to disrespect others
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Cognitive Theory (ch. 18)
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People use schemas and other cognitive shortcuts to organize and make sense of their social world
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Learning Theory (ch. 18)
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Like attitude, prejudic can be the results of observational learning
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Descriptive Norms
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– indicate how most other people actually behave in a given situation
– give permission to act in the same way |
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Injunctive Norms
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give more specific, explicit information about the actions that others find acceptable and unacceptable
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Social Facilitation
Social Impairment |
•Social Facilitation
--The presence of other people can enhance performance • Social Impairment --The presence of other people can impair performance |
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Social Loafing
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• The presence of other people may make you exert less effort than when you are performing alone
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Deindividuation
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• a person becomes “submerged in the group,” and loses the sense of individuality
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Change behavior:
-Conformity -Compliance -Obedience |
• Conformity
– Adjust behavior or beliefs because of real or imagined group pressure • Compliance – Adjust behavior because of an request • Obedience – Adjust behavior in response to a demand from an authority figure |
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-Private Acceptance
-Public Conformity |
• Private acceptance:
–One conforms because one believes the group is right • Public conformity: –One conforms because it is socially desirable, but beliefs and attitudes do not change |
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Foot-in-the-door
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A person initially agrees to a small request and then is presented with gradually larger requests (different request)
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Door-in-the-face
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An initial request is made that is likely to be denied, then the real request is made
|
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Low ball approach
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After a person agrees to a request, the cost of fulfilling the (same) request is increased
|
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Obedience
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Obedience: changing behavior in response to a demand from an authority figure
|
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Frustration-aggression hypothesis
|
– Aggression is always due to frustration
–Or stress |
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Generalized Arousal
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–When a person carries over an arousing experience from one situation to another
– Transferred excitation |
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Arousal: Cost-reward theory
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Arousal: cost-reward theory – people find sight/thought of victim distressing, and are motivated to act to reduce unpleasant arousal.
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Evolutionary Theory
|
--people act to to increase their
inclusive fitness (i.e. the survival of their genes in future generations) --Kin selection: helping an individual who shares your genes |
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Empathy-altruism theory
|
people more likely to engage in altruism if they feel empathy for the victim
|
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Why are people aggressive?
|
• Instinct theories
– Thanatos (Freud) • Evolutionary theories – Promotes survival of aggressor’s genes • Learning and culture – More common in individualistic cultures – Male culture of honor • Genetics and biological mechanisms – Genetic component to aggression – Damage to amygdala and hypothalamus leads to aggressive responses to neutral stimuli – Cerebral cortex metabolizes glucose slower in murderers – Violent criminals have higher levels of testosterone |