A & P Final

air distribution, gas exchange, and filters air

divided into the upper and lower respiratory tract

nose

nasopharynx

oropharynx

laryngopharynx

larynx

trachea

segments of the bronchial tree

lungs

converts oxygen into energy

external portion consists of a bony, cartilaginous frame covered by skin containing sebaceous glands

the frontal bone to form the root

the maxilla at its base

palatine bones separate the nasal and mouth cavities

the palatine bones fails to unite completely

difficulty swallowing and speaking

seperates the roof of the nose from the cranial cavity

divides nasal cavity into right and left cavities and it has a rich blood supply

superior

middle

inferior meatuses

external openings to the nasal cavities, opens into the vestibule

located just inside the nasal cavity, lined with skin

anterior nares-- vestibules-- all 3 meatuses-- posterior nares

air passes over the respiratory mucosa, which contains a rich blood supply

a special sensory membrane containing many olfactory nerve cells and a rich lymphatic plexus

4 pairs of air conditioning spaces open or drain into nasal cavity, lined with respiratory mucosa

a tube like structure extending from the base of the skull to the esophagus

nasopharynx

oropharynx

larynogopharynx

located in the nasopharynx

adenoids

palatine tonsils

lingual tonsils

palatine tonsils are removed

the respiratory and digestive tract

between root of tongue and upper end of the trachea

consists of cartilages attached to one another and surrounding structures by muscle

a ciliated respiratory mucosa that forms 2 pairs of folds: vestibular folds and vocal folds

upper folds, false vocal cords

lowers folds, true vocal cords

cavity above the vestibular folds

9 cartilages

3 largest are

thyroid (largest)

epiglottis

cricoid cartilage

3 pairs of smaller cartilages

arytenoid (most important)

corniculate

cuneiform cartilages

both insert and originate within the larynx

controlling vocal fold length and tension, open and close the glottis

insert in the larynx but originate on some other structure

protects airway, produces the voice

intrinsic and extrinsic muscles

extends from larynx to primary bronchi

outer wall: adventitia

middle: smooth muscle and c-shaped cartilage rings

posterior wall: elastic fibers

esophagus expands into trachea

furnishes part of the open airway to the lungs

trachea divides into 2 primary bronchi right and left

enter the lung and divide into secondary bronchi

branch into bronchioles and eventually divide into alveolar ducts and alveoli

respiratory membrane and surfactant

barrier across which gases are exchanged by alveolar air and blood

a component of the fluid coating the respiratory membrane that reduces surface tension

distribute air to interior of the lungs, 23 levels of branching produce optimum ability for oxygen transfer to the blood

gas exchange

protective layer of mucus is a purification mechanism

taste bitter toxins and respond by moving more rapidly in an effort to clear the toxin molecules from the airway

cone-shaped organs extending from the diaphragm to above the clavicles

slit on the lungs medial surface where the primary bronchi and pulmonary blood vessels enter

the inferior surface of the lung that rests on the diaphragm

pointed upper margin

lies against the ribs

2 lobes

superior and inferior

3 lobes

superior

middle

inferior

functional units called bronchiopulmonary segments

10

8

lung surfaces

3 seperated by the pleura

the parts of the thoracic cavity occupied by the lungs

the space between the lungs, occupied mainly by the esophagus, trachea, large blood vessels, and heart

palys a major role in inspiration and expiration

inflammation and infection, anatomical disorder

rhinitis, pharyngitis, laryngitis, tonsillitis, upper respiratory infection

deviated septum, sleep apnea, epistaxis (nose bleed)

lower respiratory infection, bronchitis, pneumonia, tuberculosis, lung cancer

preparing nutrients for absorption and for use by the millions of body cells

gastrointestinal tract which extends through the abdominopelvic cavity

mucosa

submucosa

muscularis

serosa

inner mucous epithelium

fibrous connective tissue called lamina propria

smooth muscle called musculars mucosae

inner mucous epithelium

fibrous connective tissue called lamina propria

smooth muscle called musculars mucosae

contains numerous glands, blood vessels, and parasympathetic nerves

thick layer of muscle tissue that wraps around the submucosa

outer most layer of the GI tract, is made up of serous membrane

lips and cheeks

buccal cavity

covered externally by skin and internally by mucous membrane

line of contact between closed lips

the philtrum

lateral boundaries of the oral cavity, continuous with the lips and lines by mucous membranes

by buccinator muscle covered by adipose tissue

2 maxillae and 2 palatines

partition between the mouth and nasopharynx

muscle arranged in an arch

root

tip

body

on the dorsal and lateral surface on the tongue

anchors the tongue to the floor of the mouth

speech and mastication

deglutition and speech

3 pairs of compoound tubuloalveolar glands:

parotid glands

submandibular glands

sublingal glands

secrete 1 liter of saliva a day

produce watery saliva containing enzymes

compound glands that contain enzyme and mucus producing elements

produce a mucus type of saliva

mastication and chewing

exposed portion of the tooth, covered by enamel

exposed portion of the tooth, covered by enamel

narrow portion that joins the crown to the root

fits into the socket of the alveolar process

dentin and cementum

20 baby teeth, shed between 6 & 13

32 teeth

tube which food passes from mouth to esophagus, by process of deglutition

3 divisions of the pharynx

terminal portion

tube that extends from the pharynx to the stomach. 1st segment of the digestive tract

stratified squamous epithelium

cervical part, thoracic part, abdominal part

muscular sphincters

cardia, fundus, body, pylorus

collar like region at the junction of the stomach and the esophagus

enlarged portion to the left and above the opening of the esophagus into the stomach

central portion

lower part

lesser curvature, greater curvature

controls the opening of the esophagus into the stomach

controls outlet of the pyloric portion of the stomach into the duodenum

gastric mucosa

epithelial lining has rugae marked by gastric pits

secrete most of the gastric juices

secrete the enzymes of gastric juices

secrete hydrochloric acid, thought to produce intrinsic factor needed for vitamin B12 absorption

secretes gastrin and ghrelin

thick layer of muscle with 3 distinct sublayers of smooth muscle tissue arranged in a criss crossing pattern

secrete gastric juice, intrinsic factors, gastrin and ghrelin, breaks down food, protects from pathogenic bacteria swallowed with food

autoimmune disease that targets the salivary and tear glands for destruction, dry eyes and dry mouth

acute viral disease characterized by swelling and inflammation of the parotid gland (parotitis)

gingivitis, periodontists, leukoplakia, malocclusion

inflammation or infection of the gums

inflammation of the periodontal membrane or periodontal ligament which anchors the tooth to the bone of the jaw

precancerous change in the mucous membrane characterized by thickened, white and slightly raised patches of tissue

abnormal alignment of the upper and lower teeth

heartburn

stomach inflammation (gastric) and intestinal inflammation (enteritis)

chronic loss of appetite

vomiting

the pyloric fibers do not relax normally to allow food to leave the stomach

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

plicae with villi

an arteriole, a venule, and a lacteal vessel

increase the surface area of the small intestines hundreds of times

small intestine

located between the villi, contain stem cells from which other cell types are produced

cecum

colon

rectum

ascending colon

transverse colon

descending colon

sibmoid colon

lower part of the curve joins the rectum

last 5 to 7 inches of intestinal tube, terminal inch is anal canal, its opening is called the anus

produce lubricationg mucus the coats feces

accesory organ of digestive system, reservoir for beneficial but bacteria

covers organs, serous membrane

projection of the parietoneum

largest gland in the body

lobes and lobules

1/6 of the liver

5/6 of the liver

anatomical units of the liver

right and left hepatic ducts

hepatic duct-- cystic duct-- common bile duct-- duodenum

detoxification, bile secretion, liver metabolism, production of plasma proteins

serous

muscular

mucosal

stores bile, ejects bile into the duodenum

jaundice and gall stones

yellow skin color, duodenum obstructed by bile

often made of cholestrol and can form when bile becomes concentrated

empties into the duodenum

pass secretions into capillaries

acinar unit secretes digestive enzymes

beta cells secrete insulin

alpha cells secrete glucagon

diarrhea, constipation, colitis, Crohn's, hemmorrhoids, and anal fissures

hepatitis, cirrhosis, pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer

to bring essential nutrients into the internal environment so that they are available to each cell of the body

mechanisms used to accomplish the primary function of the digestive system

occurs when food is taken in

the breakdown of complex nutrients into simple nutrients

motility of the gastrointestinal wall, secretion, absorption, elimination, regulation

reguired to physically break down large chunks of food material and move fodd along the digestive tract

facilitates chemical digestion

movement of nutrients through the GI mucosa into the internal environment

excretion of the material that is niot absorbed

coordination of the various functions of the digestive system

begins in mouth, breaks down food, facilitating chemical digestion

oral stage, pharyngeal stage, esophagus stage

mouth to oropharynx, voluntarily controlled

oropharynx to esophagus, involuntary

esophagus to stomach, involuntary

occur together in an alternating fashion

wave like ripple of the muscle layer of a hollow organ

mixing movement, digestive reflexes cause a forward and backward movement with a single segment of the GI tract

food in the stomach is churned and mixed with gastric juices to form chyme

about every 20 seconds into the duodenum, emptying stomach takes approximately 2 to 6 hours

hormonal and nervous mechanisms

mixes chyme with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, and intestinal mucosa

chyme approaches end of jejunum, moving it from small to large intestine

5 hrs

hydrolysis

operate in lumen of digestive tract, outside of any body cells

specific in their actions and function optimally at a specific ph

destroyed and eliminated then continually being synthesized

inactive proenzymes

carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, mineral salts and water

chemically digested to be absorbed

saliva

lubricates food and with water facilitates mixing

an enzyme that begins digestion of starches

gastric juices

a protease that begins the digestion of proteins

secreted by parietal cells

the ph of chyme for activation and optimum function of pepsin

secreted by acinar and duct cells of the pancreas

enzyme that digest proteins and polypeptides

Example: trypsin and chymotrypsin

enzyme that digest emulsified fats

enzymes that digest nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA

an enzyme that digests starches

cephalic phase, gastric phase, intestinal phase

stimulated by several hormones released by intestinal mucosa

causes increased exocrine secretion from the pancreas

liver

in the small intestine

passage of substances through the intestional mucosa into the blood or lymph

how sodium is transported

how glucose is transported

moves mutrient particles through cells

moves particles between cells

expulsion of feces from the digestive tract

principal organs of the urinary system

regulates the content of blood plasma to maintain dynamic constancy or homeostasis of the internal fluid environment within normal limits

anchor the kidneys to surrounding structures

heavy cushion of fat that surrounds each kidney

renal cortex, renal medulla, renal pyramids, renal columns, calyx, renal pelvis

outer and inner regions

make up much of the medullary tissue

areas where cortical tissue dips into the medulla between the pyramids

cuplike structure at each renal papilla that collect urine

narrows as it xits the kidney to become the ureter; acts as a collection basin to drain urine from the kidney

tube running from each kidney to the urinary bladder

composed mostly of smooth muscle tissue , can distend considerably

reservoir for urine, aided by the urethra, expels urine from the body

small tube lined with mucous membrane (urothelium) that extends from the base of the urinary bladder to the exterior of the body

the process of urinating

processes blood and forms urine

filtration

tubular reabsorption

tubular secretion

nephron

nitrogenous waste, electrolytes, toxins, pigments, hormones, abnormal constituents( ex:blood, glucose)

result of protein metabolism; includes urea, uric acid, ammonia, and creatinine

mainly ions such as sodium, potassium, ammonium, chloride, bi-carbonate, phosphate, and sulfate

caused by stenosis by renal artery

interfere with normal urine flow in the urinary tract

kidney stones

loss of normal control of voiding

renal cell carcinoma, bladder cancer

urethritis, cystitis, nephritis, pyelonephritis

failure of the kidneys to properly process blood plasma and form urine