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233 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
Anatomy
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(means "cutting open") is the study of body STRUCTURES
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Microscopic Anatomy
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Cytology & Histology
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Cytology
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The study of cells
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Histology
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The study of tissues
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Gross Anatomy
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Organs are at the border; systemic anatomy/regional anatomy
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Systemic Anatomy
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Organ Systems
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Regional Anatomy
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Body Regions
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Developmental Anatomy
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Describes structural changes during development (embryology)
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Surface Anatomy
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Study of the general form and surface marks; general doctors use this initially
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Clinical Anatomy
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Pathological Anatomy/ Radiographic Anatomy
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Pathological Anatomy
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Anatomy during disease conditions (inflamed glands, ect.)
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Radiographic Anatomy
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Anatomy seen through imaging techniques
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Organs can be __________ such as blood cells or _________ such as a heart or brain. Because of this, organs are part of both ________________ and __________ anatomy.
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small/large; microscopic/gross
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Physiology
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The study of the FUNCTIONS of living organisms, closely related to the organ/body structure
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Physiology can be divided into four parts
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Cell Physiology
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Cell Functions
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Organ Physiology
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Organ Functions
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Systemic Physiology
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Looks at the functions of an entire system (ex. cardiovascular system)
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Pathophysiology
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Functions in disease conditions
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The body can be studied at various organizational levels: |
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Chloe Creates Tons Of Ostrich Opals |
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Chemical or Molecular
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Atoms combine to form molecules and organelles (proteins, genes, sodium, ect.)
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Cellular
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Organelles form cells, the smallest living creatures
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Tissue
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Group of cells with a common function
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Organ
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A structure with at least two tissue types that performs a specific task for that body
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Organ System
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Organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose
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Organism
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The sum of all levels working together
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Requirements for (NORMAL) life in humans |
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Bow Munches Rapidly on Donuts & Reeses |
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Eleven Organ Systems in the Body which are INTERDEPENDENT (dependent on each other) |
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Isabella Sometimes Makes Nervous Emus Cry; Leo Rarely Dates Ugly Rhinos |
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Integumentary System
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MAJOR ORGANS: skin, hair, sweat glands, nails FUNCTIONS: protects against environmental hazards, helps regulate body temperature, provides sensory information |
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Skeletal System
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MAJOR ORGANS: bones, cartilages, ligaments, bone marrow FUNCTIONS: provides support and protection, nutrient storage, supports movement, forms blood cells |
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Muscular System
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MAJOR ORGANS: skeletal muscels and tendons FUNCTIONS: movement, provides protection and support for other tissues, temperature regulation (generates heat), made up of proteins and amino acids |
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Nervous System
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MAJOR ORGANS: brain, spinal cords, peripheral nerves, sense organs FUNCTIONS: directs responses to stimuli, coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems, provides and interprets sensory information and external conditions, memory, sensory information |
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Endocrine System
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MAJOR ORGANS: pituitary glands, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads (testes & ovaries), endocrine tissues in other systems FUNCTIONS: directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems, adjusts metabolic activity and energy use, controls many structural and functional changes during development |
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Cardiovascular System
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MAJOR ORGANS: heart, blood vessels, blood FUNCTION: distributes blood cells, water, and dissolved materials (including nutrients, waste, oxygen, and carbon dioxide), distibutes heat and assists in control of body temperature |
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Lymphatic System
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MAJOR ORGANS: spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, tonsils FUNCTION: defends against infection and disease, returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream |
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Respiratory System
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MAJOR ORGANS: nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli FUNCTION: delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchanges occur), provides oxygen to bloodstream, removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream, produces sounds for communication |
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Digestive System
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MAJOR ORGANS: teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas FUNCTIONS: processes and digests food, absorbs and conserves water, absorbs nutrients (ions, water, and the breakdown products of dietary sugars, proteins, and fats), stores energy reserves |
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Urinary Systems
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MAJOR ORGANS: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra FUNCTIONS: excretes waste products from the blood, controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced, stores urine prior to voluntary elimination, regulates blood ion concentrations and pH |
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Male Reproductive System
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MAJOR ORGANS: testes, epididymis, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, prostrate gland, penis, scrotum FUNCTIONS: produces male sex cells (sperm) and hormones |
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Female Reproductive System
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MAJOR ORGANS: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands FUNCTIONS: produces female sex cells (oocyte) and hormones, supports developing embryo from conception to delivery, provides milk to nourish newborn infant |
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Homeostasis
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the existence of a state internal environment (temperature, pH, and many others)
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A homeostatic regulatory mechanism consists of three parts
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Negative Feedback
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is the primary mechanism for homeostatic regulation, it opposes the change, most common |
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Positive Feedback
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produces a response that exaggerates the change (ex. blood clotting at wound site, labor, etc.)
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Homeostasis requires...
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the coordination of multiple organ systems, but the nervous and endocrine system are usually the control center
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When homeostasis stops functioning properly...
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it is a sign that you are sick
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Anatomical Position |
Feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, etc. |
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Diaphram |
divides ventral body cavity into the thoracic and abdominopelvic regions |
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Viscera |
organs in the ventral cavity |
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Serous Membrane |
A delicate two-layer membrane that lines the walls of the ventral cavity (pleura surrounds the lungs, pericardium surrounds the heart, and peritoneum surrounds the pelvic cavity); separated into the visceral and parietal layers. |
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Visceral Layer |
Covers the viscera, closer to the organ |
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Parietal Layer |
Lines inner surface of the cavity |
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Pleural Cavities |
Envelope each lung |
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Chemistry studies... |
the structure of matter |
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Atoms |
Smallest units of matter (form elements); composed of Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons |
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Element |
A pure substance composed of atoms of the same kind. |
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Charge |
Atoms are electrically charged neutral but atomic particles are charged. Protons are Positive, Electrons are Negative, and Neurons are Neutral |
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Mass |
Atomic mass is the same element but with different mass due to a different number of neurons. |
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Radioisotopes |
Unstable isotopes that emit radiation (3^H, 32^P, 35^S) |
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Radioactivity |
Can be measured and today is used by biologists to date objects, create images, trace substances, and kill tumors. |
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Atoms have never... |
been seen, the atom model is only assumed. |
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Protons are |
positive |
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Neutrons are |
neutral |
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Electrons are |
negative |
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The mass of protons and neutrons is... |
one a piece (proton= one, neutron= one) |
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The number of protons determines... |
the type of atom it is. Example: Hydrogen has one proton, Helium has two protons, etc. |
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Electrons have... |
"negligible mass" and are NOT counted in atom weight. |
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Molecules |
Atoms combine (form chemical bonds) to form molecules. Molecules are the smallest particle of a substance that still retains the properties of the substance. |
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Two Types of Chemical Bonds |
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Electrons Levels |
Two electrons reside in the 1st level, then eight in subsequent levels. |
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Water is... |
the most abundant substance in the body (2/3 of body weight) |
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Life is dependent on four properties of water: |
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Solubility |
Many molecules (solutes) are soluble in water (solvent) including salts, proteins, sugars, and even DNA. Water is easy for substances to dissolve in. |
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Reactivity |
Water participates in chemical reactions, hydrolysis, and dehydration reactions. |
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High Heat Capacity |
The ability to absorb heat.
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Lubrication |
Water is an effective lubricant; protects against friction. |
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pH is a measure of... |
acidity (or basicity) of a solution
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Acid |
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Base |
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Buffers |
Components that stabilize the pH of a solution by removing (or providing) hydrogen ions
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Salts |
Provide ions such as Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca++ |
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Positive Correlation |
Factor A increases, factor B increases; Factor A decreases, factor B decreases |
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Negative Correlation |
Factor A increases, factor B decreases; Factor A decreases, factor B increases |
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Biomolecules |
Molecules in living organisms |
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Biomolecules- Carbohydrates (Function) |
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Carbohydrates can be divided into three groups: |
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Monosaccharides |
The simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed (broken down) to smaller carbohydrates
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GFR |
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Disaccharide |
Two monosaccharides form a disaccharide
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SL |
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Polysaccharide |
Formed by repeating units (polymers) of monosaccharides (Ex. starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin) |
CS |
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Cellulose |
A polysaccharide of glucose
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Lipids (fats and oils) |
Functions:
Types of Lipids:
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Fatty Acids |
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Saturated Fats |
animal fats, not good- natural shape but bad |
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Unsaturated Fat |
Good fats, natural shape but good (ex. fish oil) |
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Trans Fats |
Bad fats, unnatural shape and bad
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Triglycerides |
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Eicosanoids |
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Steroids |
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Phospholipids |
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Proteins |
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Protein Functions |
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Sarah Manages To Munch Chocolate Donuts |
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An ion is a... |
charged atom |
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Proteins & Amino Acids |
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Four Levels of Protein Structure |
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Primary Level of Protein Structure |
The sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide; each protein is different |
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Secondary Level of Protein Structure |
Alpha helix or pleated structure |
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Tertiary Level of Protein Structure |
The 3D folding of the polypeptide |
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Quaternary Level of Protein Structure |
The organization of several polypeptides made up of several polypeptides |
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Nucleic Acids |
-carry genetic information (DNA) -protein synthesis (RNA) energy currency (ATP) |
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Nucleotide Structure |
1.) a sugar (monosaccharide) 2.) a phosphate group 3.) a nitrogen base
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RNA |
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DNA |
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ATP |
A high energy compound
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Robert Hooke |
The father of the cell theory, list to observe cells |
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Cell Theory (Four Parts) |
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Prokaryotes |
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Eukaryotes |
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The Eukaryotic Cell |
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The Plasma Membrane- Lipids |
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The Plasma Membrane- Proteins |
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The Parts of The Plasma Membrane |
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The Plasma Membrane- Carbohydrates |
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The Plasma Membrane- Functions |
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Nuclear Envelope |
Defines the nucleus |
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Nuclear Pores |
Allow communication with cytosol and are made of proteins |
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DNA is a... |
Nucleic Acid Molecule |
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Chromosomes |
A single molecule of DNA |
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Chromatin |
Complex of DNA plus associated proteins (DNA with proteins attached) |
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Messenger RNA (mRNA) |
Produced in the nucleus and exported to the cytosol through pores (produced from DNA) |
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Nucleolus |
Synthesizes ribosomes (produces ribosomes) |
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The Nucleus and It's Parts |
"Control Center of The Cell"
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Cytosol |
Fluid and Cytoskeleton |
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Cytosol: Fluid |
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Cytosol: Cytoskeleton |
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Cytoplasm |
Everything in the cell except Nucleus (cytosol and organelles) |
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Ribosomes |
Made of protein plus RNA (on ER or "free"); makes proteins -Responsible for protein synthesis (either on membrane or free floating) |
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Endoplasmic Reticulum |
A network of membranes
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Golgi Apparatus |
Distribution Center
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Lysosomes |
"Little Cannibals," can digest themselves or the entire cell
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Transcription occurs in the... |
Nucleus; DNA to RNA |
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Translation occurs in the... |
Ribosomes; RNA to protein |
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Peroxisomes |
Small and membrane-bound
1.) Break down some fatty acids 2.) Contain enzymes that break down hydrogen peroxide H2O2 (catalase) |
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Mitochondria |
Composed of a double membrane, form crista, and contain DNA. The inside is called the matrix.
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Centrioles |
Cylindrical structures composed of short protein fibers
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Cilia |
Long slender extensions of the plasma membrane that can move material on the cell surface. Located in the respiratory tract, longer than microvilli |
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Microvilli |
Small, finger-like projections of the plasma membrane that increases surface area, located in the digestive tract |
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Four Essential Cellular Functions |
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Tracy Moves Pesky Cheetahs |
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Two Types of Transport Across The Plasma Membrane |
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Passive Transport |
Does not use energy |
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Simple Diffusion |
Passive molecular movement from high concentration to low concentration across the phospholipid bilayer- depends on lipid solubiliy and size (gases, water, fatty acids) |
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Facilitated Diffusion |
Passive movement of molecules across a membrane by means of a protein carrier. Also from high to low |
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Osmosis |
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Tonicity |
Effect of an osmotic solution on cells |
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Isotonic |
The cell is balanced, no movement in or out |
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Hypotonic |
Lysis, swelling, cell bursts |
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Hypertonic |
Crenation, shrinking |
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Facilitated Diffusion Through Protein Carriers- Three Characteristics: |
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Active Transport |
Uses energy; the energy-dependent transport of molecules from low concentration to high concentration -Na+, K+, Ca++, H+ (ex. sodium/potassium pump, the proton pump, and the calcium pump) |
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Vesicle Transport |
Movement of large particles (protein, protein/lipid complexes) in and out of cells in membrane vesicles |
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Endocytosis |
Movement of proteins in; the internalization of membrane vesicles |
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Exocytosis |
Movement of particles out; vesicles are delivered to the plasma membrane |
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Three Types of Endocytosis |
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Endocytosis Functions |
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Cell Metabolism- Metabolism |
The set of chemical reactions in order to maintain life:
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Cell Metabolism- Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) |
High energy molecule; it is considered the "energy currency unit" |
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Cell Metabolism- Glycolysis (anaerobic respiration) |
Catabolism of glucose (six-carbon) into pyruvate (three carbon); no need of O2 (oxygen) |
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Cell Metabolism- Aerobic Respiration (Cellular Respiration) |
Mitochondrial breakdown of pyruvate in CO2 and water. O2 (oxygen) is needed |
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Cell Metabolism- Glucose... |
is the main fuel in the body & ATP is the energy currency unit (type of carbohydrate monosaccharide) |
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Protein Synthesis- Transcription |
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Protein Synthesis- Translation |
mRNA moves to ribosomes, where instructions are "read"
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Cell Cycle- Interphase |
1.) The cell spends the majority of its time and performs normal functions, includes preparation for cell division (DNA replication, protein synthesis) |
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Cell Cycle- Mitosis |
2.) Cell divison:
A. Mitosis- duplication of the nucleus. Mitosis is a continuous process:
B. Cytokinesis- Division of cytoplasm |
Penelope Mangled Another Terrible Crestie |
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PROPHASE |
Chromatids appear, nuclear envelope disappears |
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METAPHASE |
The equatorial plane forms (chromosomes align) |
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ANAPHASE |
Chromosomes separate |
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TELOPHASE |
The nuclear membrane reforms |
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CYTOKINESIS |
Division of the cytoplasm |
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Cell Cycle- Implications to Cancer |
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Tumors |
Abnormal growth of cells (benign vs. malignant)
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Oncogenes vs. Tumor Suppressors |
Oncogenes promote mitosis (accelerator pedal), tumor suppressors inhibit mitosis (brake pedal) |
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Molecular Markers |
Protein over- expression or gene mutations characteristics of cancer cells |
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Tissues are... |
groups of cells that perform the same function |
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Four Basic Tissue Types: |
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Epithelial Tissue |
Layers of cells that cover external and internal surfaces- skin, respiratory tract, stomach, etc. |
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Connective Tissue |
Connects epithelial tissue to the rest of the body, fills up space, provides support, stores fat |
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Muscle Tissue |
Composed of cells specialized for contraction |
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Nervous Tissue |
Tissue specialized to conduct electrical impulses |
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Epithelial cells do have... |
polarity, they can be different from eachother |
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Classifying Epithelia- Simple vs. Stratified |
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Classifying Epithelia- Cell Shape |
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Pseudostratified |
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Functions According to Cell Layers |
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Functions According to Cell Shape: |
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Free Surface (Apical) |
Surface that faces the internal or external environment
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Surface that faces other cells (lateral) forms three type of connections: |
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Surface facing the basement membrane |
Hemidesmosomes- Attach the cell to the basement membrane |
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Glands |
Collections of epithelial cells specialized for secretion |
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Endocrine Glands |
Secrete into the intestinal tissue and blood |
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Exocrine Glands |
Secrete into an epithelial surface
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Connective Tissue Makeup and Organization |
Made up of cells that are spaced apart with a fluid or gel-like extracellular matrix Organization
Extracellular fibers + ground substance= extracellular matrix |
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Extracellular Protein Fibers: |
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Ground Substance |
Fills the space between cells and surrounds fibers. It is usually viscous, but it can be fluid (blood) or solid (bone) -It is made of proteoglycans and hyaluronan |
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Classification of Connective Tissues |
Based on the physical properties of the matrix:
-loose -dense
-blood and lymph
-cartilage and bone |
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Cell Types |
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******* Flamingos Monsterously Ate Melody |
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Fibroblasts |
Most abundant, maintain matrix (secrete hyalurona) |
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Fibrocytes |
Maintain fibers, differentiate from fibroblasts |
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Macrophages |
("big eaters")- Engulf pathogens of damaged cells |
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Adipocytes |
store fat |
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Mesenchymal |
Stem cells that divide and produce other connective tissue cell types) |
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Types of Connective Tissue Proper- Loose |
Packing material of the body
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Arid Audoud Race |
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Types of Connective Tissue Proper- Dense |
Most Volume is occupied by fibers, collagen dominates
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Areolar Tissue |
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Adipose Tissue |
Composed of large cells that contain a single large lipid droplet. It provides padding, insulation, packing |
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Reticular Tissue |
Makes a framework of reticular fibers around cells for support |
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Dense Regular |
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Dense Irregular |
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Fluid Connective Tissues |
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Supporting Connective Tissue |
Provides a strong framework that supports the rest of the body: cartilage and bone |
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Cartilage |
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Types of Cartilage |
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Hyaline Cartilage |
Contains only collagen fibers, very strong. Most abundant in the body (nose, end of bones) |
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Elastic Cartilage |
Contains collagen and elastic fibers, flexible and rarely breaks (outer ear) |
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Fibrocartilage Cartilage |
Contains little ground substance. Mostly collagen fibers. Absorbs shocks, reduces friction (intervertebral discs, menisci in the knee joint) |
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Bone |
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Muscular Tissue |
Specialized for movement |
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Types of Muscle (Structure/ Function) |
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Three Types of Muscles |
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Skeletal Muscle |
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Cardiac Muscle |
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Smooth Muscle |
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Nervous Tissue |
Coordinates the activities and movements of the body, the brain and spinal cord contain 98% of nervous tissue. |
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Two Types of Neural Cells
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What are stem cells? |
Cells that can divide and differentiate:
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