Developmental Psychology Module 1

Messages with units of hereditary information, with a blueprint for a structure for encoding a process. Comprised of short segments of DNA. Carried in chromosomes. (23 pairs)

Normal cell replication for somatic reproduction, where a single cell divides and replicates (each cell contains two sets of chromosomes).

Special process of cell division for sexual reproduction, where haploid cells (each with half the number of chromosomes as parent cell) are produced (cells only have one set of chromosomes after division). Occurs prior to formation of sperm and ova. Only in gametes.

When sperm cells meet egg cells, chromosomes are recombined (genes cross over) to produce a different genetic combination so each chromosome in egg and sperm material is a unique mixture of maternal and paternal DNA.

Errors in the process of meiosis or mitosis (1/200 foetuses). Inversions, deletions, duplications, translocations.

One dominant allele can override the effect of the other recessive allele.

Only if both gees recessive will the influence of the recessive gene be expressed.

Two alternate forms of the same gene (2 hereditary elements for each trait)

Alleles have the same genotype (e.g. BB)

Alleles have different genotypes (e.g. Bb)

Genetic constitution

Observable characteristic e.g. brown/blue eyes

1 in 2

1 in 4

The effect of the recessive gene is not totally masked, so phenotype would be a compromise.

- Red-green colour blindness

- Haemophilia

- Certain forms of deafness

- Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy

- Down Syndrome Trisomy 21

- Edward's Syndrome Trisomy 18

- Turner Syndrom (XO)

- Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY)

True

- Ultrasound

- Amniocentesis

- Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)

- Nuchal screening

- Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis

A range of possible phenotypes for each genotype e.g. IQ in restricted vs. enriched environment

- experimental breeding (animal models)

- selective breeding for heritable traits

- genetic manipulation - insert particular variant of normal gene in cells or 'knockout' a normal gene - compare with control to determine function of manipulated genes

- Kinship studies e.g. bipolar disorder

- Twin studies - twin/adoption studies

- Adoption studies

- Longitudinal studies - test for genes, measure care taking, environmental factors, look for interaction effects

100%

50%

25%

12.5%

1%

45%

15%

13%

10%

3%

1-2%

Identical twins - one fertilised ovum divides

Fraternal twins - two ova are released at the same time, each fertilised by a different sperm.

Twins sharing 100% of genes

Twins sharing 50% of genes

- naturalistic - can't systematically vary environment

- assumption that diversifying influences of environment are no greater for fraternal than identical twins

Same environment

Different environment

Shared heredity - genetically related individuals in different environments

Shared environment - genetically unrelated individuals in same environment

- issue of selective placement confounds interpretation

- no random allocation

- bias in placement for similar parents (meeting criteria for eligibility, want children)

- disclosure - sibling contrast effect

- disclosure - timing of disclosure/emotional aspects

study of changes in non-genetic factors causing organism's genes to behave differently - how do heredity and environment work together?

- passive - child passively receives correlated genes and environment

- evocative - child elicits reactions from parents that lead them to provide environments correlated with the child's genes

- active - child's genes lead him/her to actively seek out environmental experiences

- maternal chronic illness

- history of drug use/exposure of either parent

- inadequate nutrition in childhood/adolescence

- previous numerous closely spaced pregnancies

- age of mother/father at time of conception

- family genetic history

- mutations during gamete formation

agents causing birth defects, such as drugs, x-rays, toxic chemicals

-Timing (critical period in organogenesis)

-Dosage & duration

-Genetic make-up of child and mother

-Other aspects of environment

1. Germinal period - conception - 2 weeks

(teratogens rarely influence)

2. Embryonic period - implantation - 8 weeks (maximum susceptibility to teratogens)

3. Fetal period- 8 weeks - term (40 weeks) (less impact of teratogens, some alterations still occur)

12-28 weeks

True, but effects on infants are moderated by many other genetic and environmental variables.

- distinctive head/facial features

- heart defects

- newborns are irritable, hyperactive, seizures/tremors

- below average mental functioning

- mental health problems

Adult disease is linked to prenatal and early postnatal life (obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes)

- heightened fear and anxiety

- reduced exploration & play

- social withdrawal

- elevated corticosterone levels

True

False - they are calmer

false - they do

True

2. Genes

3. Maternal sensitivity/psychological state

- talking to unborn baby

- mother's diet, relaxation, health

- music

- establishing relationship with fetes

Temperament

Mental illness in a parent

Uterine environment

Toxin exposure during pregnancy

Difficult birth, premature labor

Parent's living circumstances, poverty

Stressors add together until a threshold is reached, above which problem outcomes will occur

Easy temperament

Desired gender

Good nutrition and health behaviours in pregnancy

Economic advantages e.g. good schools

Supportive responsive parenting

Developmental outcome is the result of the combined effects of stressors and protective factors

An individual's biological characteristics and developmental history/social context

Prematurity

Low birth weight (linked to low SES, multiple birth)

Respiratory distress

neurological capacity in newborn infants

neonatal capacities

reflexes controlled subcortically

bodily functions - crying, sleeping, reflecx responding - regulation

1. Cephalo-caudal principle - growth/control development occurs from head downwards

2. Proximo-distal principle - muscles develop from trunk to extremities

3. Orthogenetic principle- development starts globally, initially undifferentiated and moves toward differentiation and hierarchical organisation

1. head control in prone

2. rolling over

3. propping - crawling

4. sitting (postural stability underpins fine motor development)

5. pull to stand

6. cruise - walk

Progression from reflex to voluntary

Trunk stability

Second year

Genetically programmed, universal unfolding

environment can effect learning e.g. deprived infants may take longer, some cultural rearing practices can both restrict and enhance motor development

Different sensations (kinaesthetic, visual, and vestibular) are combined to inform perceptions

Mouth for sucking - first sensory focus

Hands for grasping - tactile

Sensory receptors (eyes, nose, ears)

Vestibular system (inner ear, motion)

Kinaesthesia - proprioception (going and stretch receptors)

1. preferential looking paradigms

2. habituation paradigms

3. visual cliff paradigm

4. conditioning paradigms

Visual acuity limited, scan edges, tend to fixate on single feature

True

3-6 months

4 days

6 months

1 month

False - it is highly acute

Preferential head-turning for mother's breast pad (2-day olds respond randomly)

True

- sweet - smile, sucking

- sour - lip-pursing, nose wrinkling, blinking

- bitter - dislike expression, spitting, vomiting movements

After 4 months

They do feel pain, but their pain threshold may be lower than for adults

reaching towards objects visually interested in, turning towards sounds that interest them, mouthing objects that are interesting to look at and touch

classic experiment with pacifiers - look longer at dummy they've sucked on when shown pictures, suck dummy with distinctive shape/texture

16

False - it decreases

1. elicit infant attention

2. aid in behaviour organisation, state control

3. regulate info input - not overload the system

4. affirm infant's emerging sense of self/agency

Neonates movements are organised with adult speech

synchronised

- Mayer and Tropic: turn-taking conversational structure of mother-infant face-to-face interaction

- Mallock: companionship space through joint use of music-like qualities in vocal & body gestures

Timing of speech matches - reciprocity seems to be innate

Loudness matched

Body movements matched

Raised pitch

Pitch and loudness changes are exaggerated

Slow speed

Long pauses between utterances

Exaggerated in time

Exaggerated in space

Repertoire limited

Games e.g. peek-a-boo

Performing behaviours that express the quality of feeling or a shared affect state, but without imitating the exact behavioural expression of the inner state

1. some form of matching

2. matching is largely cross-modal (e.g. vocalisation vs. behaviour)

3. match concerns expression of inner states

4. process occurs rapidly, largely out of awareness and almost automatically

1. vocalisations

2. facial displays

3. mixed modal

Intensity

To commune with the baby

Intersubjectivity