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86 Cards in this Set
- Front
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joint
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also called an articulation or arthrosis, is a point of contact between two bones, between bone and cartilage, or between bone and teeth. When we say that one bone articulates with another bone, we mean that the bones form a joint.
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The scientific study of joints is termed
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arthrology
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The study of motion of the human body is called
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kinesiology
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synarthrosis
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an immovable joint
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amphiarthroses
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a slightly movable joint
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diarthrosis
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a freely movable joint; these come in a variety of shapes and permit several different types of movements.
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Fibrous joints
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Joints in which the neighboring bones are joined together by a solid mass of dense irregular connective tissue. There are 3 types of fibrous joints
Sutures, sydesmoses, and interosseous membranes |
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what are the types of fibrous joints
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sutures,sydesmoses, interosseous membranes
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suture
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a fibrous joint composed of a thin layer of dense irregular connective tissue called sutural ligament. Found only between bones of the skull.
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synostosis
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some sutures, although present during growth of the skull are replaced by bone in the adult. Such a suture is called a synostois, or bony joint- in which there is a complete fusion of two separte bones into one
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frontal or metopic suture
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If the frontal suture persists beyond age 6 it is called the frontal or metopic suture.
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sydesmosis
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A syndesmosis is a fibrous joint in which there is a greater distance between the articulating surfaces and more dense irregular connective tissue than in a suture. The dense irregular connective tissue is typically arranged as a bundle (ligament) and the joint permits limited movement. One example of a syndesmosis is the distal tibiofibular joint, where the anterior tibiofibular ligament connects the tibia and fibula. Another example of a syndesmosis is called a gomphosis or dentoalveolar joint, in which a cone‐shaped peg fits into a socket. The only examples of gomphoses in the human body are the articulations between the roots of the teeth and their sockets (alveoli) in the maxillae and mandible (Figure 9.1b, right). The dense irregular connective tissue between a tooth and its socket is the thin periodontal ligament (membrane). A healthy gomphosis permits no movement. Inflammation and degeneration of the gums, periodontal ligament, and bone is called periodontal disease.
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Interosseous Membranes
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is a substantial sheet of dense irregular connective tissue that binds neighboring long bones and permits slight movement. There are two principal interosseous membrane joints in the human body. One occurs between the radius and ulna in the forearm (see Figure 8.5a, b) and the other occurs between the tibia and fibula in the leg (Figure 9.1d). These strong connective tissue sheets not only help hold these adjacent long bones together, they also play an important role in defining the range of motion between the neighboring bones and provide an increased attachment surface for muscles that produce movements of the digits of the hand and foot
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cartilaginous joint
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there is solid connective tissue that allows little or no movement. The articulating bones are tightly connected, either by hyaline cartilage or by fibrocartilage . The two types of cartilaginous joints are synchondroses and symphyses.
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Two types of cartilaginous joints
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Synchondroses
symphyses |
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synchondroses
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is an immovable, cartilaginous joint in which the connecting material is hyaline cartilage. An example of a synchondrosis is the epiphyseal (growth) plate that connects the epiphysis and diaphysis of a growing bone
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symphysis
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is a cartilaginous joint in which the ends of the articulating bones are covered with hyaline cartilage, but the bones are connected by a broad, flat disc of fibrocartilage. All symphyses occur in the midline of the body. The pubic symphysis between the anterior surfaces of the hip bones, which is slightly movable, is one example of a symphysis (Figure 9.2b). This type of joint is also found at the junction of the manubrium and body of the sternum (see Figure 7.21a) and at the intervertebral joints between the bodies of vertebrae (see Figure 7.15a). A portion of the intervertebral disc is made up of fibrocartilage.
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synovial joints
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the characteristics of a synovial joint that distinguishes it from other types of joints is the presence of a space called a synovial (joint) cavity , which is surrounded by a connective tissue capsule that attaches the articulating bones (Figure 9.3). Synovial joints range from slightly movable to the most mobile joints of the body. For example, the synovial joints between some of the carpal bones have very limited movement, but the shoulder joint can move freely in all directions. The bone surfaces within the capsule of a synovial joint are covered by a layer of hyaline cartilage called articular cartilage. The smooth cartilage covers the articulating surfaces of the bones but does not bind them together. The lubricated articular cartilage reduces friction between bones in the joint during movement and helps to absorb shock.
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synovial joint cavity
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surrounded by a connective tissue capsule that attaches the articulating bones.
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articular cartilage
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hyaline cartilage. supports.
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articular capsule
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surrounds a synovial joint, encloses the synovial cavity, and unites the articulating bones. The articular capsule is composed of two layers, an outer fibrous membrane and an inner synovial membrane
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fibrous membrane
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usually consists of dense irregular connective tissue (mostly collagen fibers) that attaches to the periosteum of the articulating bones; it is literally a thickened continuation of the periosteum between the two bones. The flexibility of the fibrous membrane permits considerable movement at a joint, and its great tensile strength (resistance to stretching) helps prevent the bones from dislocating
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synovial membrane
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The inner layer of the articular capsule, the synovial membrane, is composed of areolar connective tissue with elastic fibers. At many synovial joints, the synovial membrane includes accumulations of adipose tissue. The adipose tissue varies in thickness; the thicker regions are called ARTICULAR FAT PADS. An example is the infrapatellar fat pad in the knee
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synovial fluid
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The synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid (ov‐=egg), which forms a thin film over the surfaces within the articular capsule. This viscous, clear or pale‐yellow fluid was named for its similarity in appearance and consistency to uncooked egg white. Synovial fluid consists of hyaluronic acid secreted by fibroblast‐like cells in the synovial membrane and interstitial fluid filtered from blood plasma. Its functions include reducing friction by lubricating the joint, and absorbing shocks. The synovial fluid also supplies oxygen and nutrients to the chondrocytes within articular cartilage, and removes carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes (recall that cartilage is an avascular tissue, so it does not have blood vessels to perform these two functions). Synovial fluid also contains phagocytic cells that remove microbes and the debris that results from normal wear and tear in the joint
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liagament
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refer to dense irregular or dense regular connective tissue structures that bind one bone to another bone.
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accessory ligaments
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Many synovial joints also contain accessory ligaments called extracapsular ligaments and intracapsular ligaments. Extracapsular ligaments lie outside the articular capsule, such as the fibular and tibial collateral ligaments of the knee joint. Intracapsular ligaments occur within the articular capsule but are excluded from the synovial cavity by folds of the synovial membrane. The anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments of the knee joint are intracapsular ligaments
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Articular discs
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A few synovial joints in the body contain articular discs , fibrocartilage structures not covered by synovial membrane that divide the synovial cavity into two smaller cavities
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menisci
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In some joints, incomplete discs called menisci partially divide the joint
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labrum
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A labrum, prominent in the ball‐and‐socket joints of the shoulder and hip, is the fibrocartilaginous lip that extends from the edge of the joint socket. Triangular in cross‐section as it projects from the edge of the joint socket, the labrum helps deepen the joint socket and increases the area of contact between the socket and the ball‐like surface of the head of the humerus or the femur.
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bursae
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saclike structures called bursae are strategically situated to alleviate friction around some joints, such as the shoulder and knee joints. bursae are not strictly parts of synovial joints, but they do resemble joint capsules because their walls consist of an outer fibrous membrane of thin dense connective tissue lined by a synovial membrane. located b/w skin and bone, tendons and bones, muscles and bones, and ligaments and bones.
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bursitis
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An acute or chronic inflammation of a bursa, called bursitis [Pronunciation] (bur‐SĪ‐tis), is usually caused by irritation from repeated, excessive exertion of a joint. The condition may also be caused by trauma, an acute or chronic infection (including syphilis and tuberculosis), or by rheumatoid arthritis. Symptoms include pain, swelling, tenderness, and limited movement.
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tendon (synovial) sheaths
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are tubelike bursae that wrap around tendons experiencing considerable friction on all sides as they pass through fibro‐osseous tunnels (tunnels formed by connective tissue bands and bone). The tendon sheath protects all sides of the tendon from friction within the tunnel. The tendon of the biceps brachii muscle at the shoulder joint (see Figure 9.12c) and the tendons of wrist, ankle, fingers, and toes are two examples of tendons surrounded by tendon sheaths.
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Types of synovial joints
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plane
hinge pivot condyloid saddle ball and socket |
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plane joints
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The articulating surfaces of bones in a plane joint, also called a planar joint, are flat or slightly curved (Figure 9.4a). The primary activity of plane joints is side‐to‐side and back‐and‐forth gliding movements between the flat surfaces of bones (described shortly), but the bones may also rotate against one another. Many plane joints are biaxial, meaning that they permit movement in two axes. [An axis is a straight line around which a bone rotates (revolves) or translates (glides).] If a plane joint also rotates, permitting movement in three axes, it is considered triaxial (multiaxial). Examples of plane joints include the intercarpal joints (between carpal bones at the wrist); intertarsal joints (between tarsal bones at the ankle); sternoclavicular joints (between the manubrium of the sternum and the clavicle); acromioclavicular joints (between the acromion of the scapula and the clavicle); sternocostal joints (between the sternum and ends of the costal cartilages at the tips of the second through seventh pairs of ribs); and vertebrocostal joints (between the heads and tubercles of ribs and transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae).
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pivot
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In a pivot joint [Pronunciation] , the rounded or pointed surface of one bone articulates with a ring formed partly by another bone and partly by a ligament (Figure 9.4c). A pivot joint is uniaxial because it allows rotation (revolving) around its own longitudinal axis only. Examples of pivot joints are the atlanto‐axial joint, in which the atlas rotates around the axis and permits the head to turn from side‐to‐side as in signifying “no” (see Figure 9.9a), and the radioulnar joints that enable the palms to turn anteriorly and posteriorly as the head of the radius pivots around its long axis in the radial notch of the ulna (see
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hinge
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In a hinge joint [Pronunciation] , the convex surface of one bone fits into the concave surface of another bone (Figure 9.4b). As the name implies, hinge joints produce an angular, opening‐and‐closing motion like that of a hinged door. Hinge joints permit only flexion (bending of joints) and extension (straightening of joints). In most joint movements, one bone remains in a fixed position while the other moves around an axis. Hinge joints are said to be uniaxial (monaxial) because they typically allow motion around a single axis. Examples of hinge joints include the knee (actually a modified hinge joint; see Exhibit 9.E), elbow, ankle, and interphalangeal joints (between the phalanges of the fingers and toes).
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condyloid
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In a condyloid joint [Pronunciation] (KON‐di‐loyd; condyl‐=knuckle), also called an ellipsoidal joint, the convex oval‐shaped projection of one bone fits into the oval‐shaped depression of another bone (Figure 9.4d). A condyloid joint is biaxial because it permits movement around two axes, allowing you to move your index finger at the metacarpophalangeal (big knuckle) joint both forward and backward (flexion–extension) and from side to side (abduction–adduction). As you will see later, this joint also permits circumduction (movement in a circle), which is not an isolated movement but a continuous sequence of flexion, abduction, extension, adduction, and rotation. All of these movements will be described shortly (see Section 9.5). The radiocarpal (wrist) joint is another example of a condyloid joint.
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saddle
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In a saddle joint [Pronunciation] , the articular surface of one bone is saddle‐shaped, and the articular surface of the other bone fits into the “saddle” as a sitting rider would (Figure 9.4e). The movements at saddle joints are the same as those at condyloid joints: biaxial (flexion–extension and abduction–adduction) plus circumduction. An example of a saddle joint is the carpometacarpal joint between the trapezium of the carpus and metacarpal of the thumb.
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ball and socket
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A ball‐and‐socket joint [Pronunciation] consists of the ball‐like surface of one bone fitting into a cuplike depression of another bone (Figure 9.4f). Such joints are triaxial (multiaxial), permitting movement around three axes; for example, your hip joint allows you to kick a ball (flexion–extension), do a side leg lift (abduction–adduction), and twist your leg so your foot faces outward (rotation). At the hip joint the head of the femur fits into the acetabulum of the hip bone. The shoulder joint is also a ball‐and‐socket joint. At the shoulder joint the head of the humerus fits into the glenoid cavity of the scapula.
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Movements at synovial joints are grouped into four main categories:
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1. Gliding(translational movements)
2. angular movements, 3. rotation 4. special movements |
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gliding
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Gliding is a simple movement in which relatively flat bone surfaces move back‐and‐forth and from side‐to‐side with respect to one another (Figure 9.5). There is no significant alteration of the angle between the bones. Gliding movements are limited in range due to the structure of the articular capsule and associated ligaments and bones. The intercarpal and intertarsal joints are examples of articulations where gliding movements occur.
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angular movements
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In angular movements, there is an increase or a decrease in the angle between articulating bones. The major angular movements are flexion, extension, lateral flexion, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, and circumduction. These movements are discussed with respect to the body in the anatomical position (see Figure 1.2).
Flexion, Extension, Lateral Flexion, and Hyperextension |
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flexion
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there is a decrease in the angle between articulating bones
Occurs along sagittal plane |
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extension
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there is an increase in the angle b/w articulating bones
Occurs along sagittal plane |
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ex. of flexion
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• Bending the head toward the chest at the atlanto‐occipital joint between the atlas (the first vertebra) and the occipital bone of the skull, and at the cervical intervertebral joints between the cervical vertebrae (Figure 9.6a)
• Bending the trunk forward at the intervertebral joints, as in doing a crunch with your abdominal muscles • Moving the humerus forward at the shoulder joint, as in swinging your arms forward while walking (Figure 9.6b) • Moving the forearm toward the arm at the elbow joint, that is, bending your elbow (Figure 9.6c) • Moving the palm toward the forearm at the wrist or radiocarpal joint, as in shooting a basketball (Figure 9.6d) • Bending of the digits of the hand or feet at the interphalangeal joints, as in clenching your fingers to make a fist • Moving the thigh forward at the hip joint, as when you climb stairs (Figure 9.6e) • Moving the heel toward the buttock at the knee or tibio femoral joint, as occurs when you bend your knee |
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lateral flexion
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occurs along frontal plane
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hyperextension
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continuation of extension beyond the anatomical position
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ex. of hyperextension
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• Bending the head backward at the atlanto‐occipital and cervical intervertebral joints (Figure 9.6a)
• Bending the trunk backward at the intervertebral joints as in a backbend • Moving the humerus backward at the shoulder joint, as in swinging the arms backward while walking (Figure 9.6b) • Moving the palm backward at the wrist joint as in preparing to shoot a basketball (Figure 9.6d) • Moving the femur backward at the hip joint, as in walking (Figure 9.6e) |
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abduction
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is the movement of a bone away from the midline
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adduction
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movement of a bone toward the midline. usually occurs along frontal plane.
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circumduction
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movment of the distal end of a body part in a circle
Circumduction is not an isolated movement by itself but rather a continuous sequence of flexion, abduction, extension, adduction, and rotation (or in the opposite order). It does not occur along a separate plane of movement. Examples of circumduction are moving the humerus in a circle at the shoulder joint (Figure 9.8a), moving the hand in a circle at the wrist joint, moving the thumb in a circle at the carpometacarpal joint, moving the fingers in a circle at the metacarpophalangeal joints (between the metacarpals and phalanges), and moving the femur in a circle at the hip joint |
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rotation
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a bone revolves around its own longitudinal axis. One example is turning the head from side‐to‐side at the atlanto‐axial joint (between the atlas and the axis), as when you shake your head “no” (Figure 9.9a). Another is turning the trunk from side‐to‐side at the intervertebral joints while keeping the hips and free lower limbs in the anatomical position. In the free limbs, rotation is defined relative to the midline, and specific qualifying terms are used. If the anterior surface of a bone of the free limb is turned toward the midline, the movement is called medial (internal) rotation
You can medially rotate the humerus at the shoulder joint as follows: Starting in the anatomical position, flex your elbow and then move your palm across the chest (Figure 9.9b). In order to laterally rotate the humerus, move in the opposite direction (Figure 9.9b). You can medially rotate the femur at the hip joint as follows: Lie on your back, bend your knee, and then move your leg and foot laterally from the midline. Here's the confusing part: Although you are moving your leg and foot laterally, the femur is rotating medially (Figure 9.9c). You can produce medial rotation of your leg at the knee joint by sitting on a chair, bending your knee, raising your free lower limb off the floor, and turning your toes medially. If the anterior surface of the bone of a free limb is turned away from the midline, the movement is called lateral (external) rotation |
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special movements
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Elevation / depression
Protraction / retraction inversion / eversion Dorsiflexion / plantar flexion Supination / pronation opposition |
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range of motion
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refers to range, measured in degrees of a circle, through which the bones of a joint can be moved.
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The following factors contribute to keeping the articular surfaces in contact and affect range of motion
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1. structure or shape of the articulating bones
2.strength and tension (tautness) of the joint ligaments. 3. Arrangement and tension of the muscles. 4. contact of soft parts 5. hormones. 6. Disuse. |
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suture
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Between skull bones
Structural: fibrous Functional: slightly movable or immovable Slight |
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atlanto-occipital
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Between superior articular facets of atlas and occipital condyles of occipital bone
Structural: synovial (condyloid) Functional: freely movable Flexion and extension of head and slight lateral flexion of head to either side |
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atlanto-axial
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1. Between dens of axis and anterior arch of atlas and
2. between lateral masses of atlas and axis Structural: synovial (pivot) between dens and anterior arch, and synovial (plane) between lateral masses Functional: freely movable |
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intervertebral
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1. Between vertebral bodies and
2. between vertebral arches Structural: cartilaginous (symphysis) between vertebral bodies, and synovial (plane) between vertebral arches Functional: slightly movable between vertebral bodies, and freely movable between vertebral arches |
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vertebrocostal
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1. Between facets of heads of ribs and facets of bodies of adjacent thoracic vertebrae and intervertebral discs between them and
2. between articular part of tubercles of ribs and facets of transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae Structural: synovial (plane) Functional: freely movable |
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sternocostal
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Between sternum and first seven pairs of ribs
Structural: cartilaginous (synchondrosis) between sternum and first pair of ribs, and synovial (plane) between sternum and second through seventh pairs of ribs Functional: immovable between sternum and first pair of ribs, and freely movable between sternum and second through seventh pairs of ribs |
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lumbosacral
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1. Between body of fifth lumbar vertebra and base of sacrum and
2. between inferior articular facets of fifth lumbar vertebra and superior articular facets of first vertebra of sacrum Structural: cartilaginous (symphysis) between body and base, and synovial (plane) between articular facets Functional: slightly movable between body and base, and freely movable between articular facets |
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sternoclavicular
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Between sternal end of clavicle, manubrium of sternum, and first costal cartilage
Structural: synovial (plane and pivot) Functional: freely movable |
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acromioclavicular
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Between acromion of scapula and acromial end of clavicle
Structural: synovial (plane) Functional: freely movable |
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radioulnar
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Proximal radioulnar joint between head of radius and radial notch of ulna; distal radioulnar joint between ulnar notch of radius and head of ulna
Structural: synovial (pivot) Functional: freely movable |
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wrist (radiocarpal)
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Between distal end of radius and scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum of carpus
Structural: synovial (condyloid) Functional: freely movable |
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intercarpal
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Between proximal row of carpal bones, distal row of carpal bones, and between both rows of carpal bones (midcarpal joints)
Structural: synovial (plane), except for hamate, scaphoid, and lunate (midcarpal) joint, which is synovial (saddle) Functional: freely movable |
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carpometacarpal
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Carpometacarpal joint of thumb between trapezium of carpus and first metacarpal; carpometacarpal joints of remaining digits formed between carpus and second through fifth metacarpals
Structural: synovial (saddle) at thumb and synovial (plane) at remaining digits Functional: freely movable |
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metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal
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Between heads of metacarpals (or metatarsals) and bases of proximal phalanges
Structural: synovial (condyloid) Functional: freely movable |
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interphalangeal
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Between heads of phalanges and bases of more distal phalanges
Structural: synovial (hinge) Functional: freely movable |
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sacroiliac
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Between auricular surfaces of sacrum and ilia of hip bones
Structural: synovial (plane) Functional: freely movable |
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pubic symphysis
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Between anterior surfaces of hip bones
Structural: cartilaginous (symphysis) Functional: slightly movable |
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tibiofibular
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Proximal tibiofibular joint between lateral condyle of tibia and head of fibula; distal tibiofibular joint between distal end of fibula and fibular notch of tibia
Structural: synovial (plane) at proximal joint, and fibrous (syndesmosis) at distal joint Functional: freely movable at proximal joint, and slightly movable at distal joint |
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intertarsal
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Subtalar joint between talus and calcaneus of tarsus; talocalcaneonavicular joint between talus and calcaneus and navicular of tarsus; calcaneocuboid joint between calcaneus and cuboid of tarsus
Structural: synovial (plane) at subtalar and calcaneocuboid joints, and synovial (saddle) at talocalcaneonavicular joint Functional: freely movable |
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tarsometatarsal
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Between three cuneiforms of tarsus and bases of five metatarsal bones
Structural: synovial (plane) Functional: freely movable |
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temporomandibular joint
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is a combined hinge and plane joint formed by the condylar process of the mandible and the mandibular fossa and articular tubercle of the temporal bone. The temporomandibular joint is the only freely movable joint between skull bones (with the exception of the ear ossicles); all other skull joints are sutures and are immovable to slightly movable.
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shoulder joint
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The shoulder joint [Pronunciation] (Figure 9.12) is a ball‐and‐socket joint formed by the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula. It also is referred to as the humeroscapular or glenohumeral joint.
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elbow joint
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The elbow joint (Figure 9.13) is a hinge joint formed by the trochlea and capitulum of the humerus, the trochlear notch of the ulna, and the head of the radius.
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hip joint
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The hip joint (coxal joint) (Figure 9.14) is a ball‐and‐socket joint formed by the head of the femur and the acetabulum of the hip bone.
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knee joint
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The knee joint (tibiofemoral joint) is the largest and most complex joint of the body (Figure 9.15). It is a modified hinge joint (because its primary movement is a uniaxial hinge movement) that actually consists of three joints within a single synovial cavity:
1. Laterally is a tibiofemoral joint, between the lateral condyle of the femur, lateral meniscus, and lateral condyle of the tibia, which is the weight‐bearing bone of the lower leg. 2. Medially is another tibiofemoral joint, between the medial condyle of the femur, medial meniscus, and medial condyle of the tibia. 3. An intermediate patellofemoral joint is between the patella and the patellar surface of the femur. |
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ankle joint
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The ankle joint (talocrural joint) (Figure 9.16) is a hinge joint formed by (1) the distal end of the tibia and its medial malleolus with the talus and (2) the lateral malleolus of the fibula with the talus. It is a strong and stable joint due to the shapes of the articulating bones, the strength of its ligaments, and the tendons that surround it.
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arthralgia
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pain in a joint
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bursectomy
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removal of bursa
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chondritis
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inflammation of cartilage
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subluxation
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a partial or incomplete dislocation
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synovitis
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inflammation of a synovial membrane in a joint
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