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80 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Psychology |
No single definition; The study of the psyche, spirit, consciousness, behavior. |
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Historiography |
study of the proper way to write history. |
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Presentism |
attempt to understand the past in terms of the present knowledge and standards. |
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Historicism |
study of the past without addressing the relationship between past and present. |
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Zeitgeist (spirit of the times) |
approachemphasizes the influences of developments in other sciences, political climate,technological advancements, and economic conditions on the development ofpsychology |
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Great-Person |
emphasizes the works of individuals. |
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Historical Development |
•Illustrateshow individuals and/or events contributed to changes and development of ideasand concepts |
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Eclectic Approach |
combinesthese three approaches and is the approach used in the book
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Why study the history of psychology |
•Perspective •Deeperunderstanding •Recognitionof fads and fashions in psychology •Avoidingrepetition of mistakes •Asource of valuable ideas •Curiosity |
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Perspective |
•Allowsfor a more full appreciation of modern psychology. |
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Deeper Understanding |
–Allowsfor a greater awareness of where psychology’s subject matter came from and whyit is considered important
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Recognitionof fads and fashions in psychology
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–Theability to recognize that a current avenue of research or body of knowledge maybe affected by subjective and arbitrary factors of society
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•Avoidingrepetition of mistakes
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•Beingfamiliar with the history of psychology helps to avoid repeating the mistakes of previousresearchers and practitioners
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•Asource of valuable ideas
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–Individualscan become familiar with earlier ideas that may have remained dormant forvarious reasons
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•Curiosity
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–Tobecome familiar with the history of psychology for personal interest
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•empirical observation |
– direct observation of nature
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two major components of science
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empirical observation and theory
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Definitions of Science |
Combination of rationalism and empiricism
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Rationalism |
mentaloperations or principles (rules of logic) must be employed to attain trueknowledge. |
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Empiricism |
thesource of all knowledge is sensory observation. |
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Scientifictheory has two main functions |
–Organizeempirical observations. –Providesguide for future observations. |
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Confirmablepropositions |
–Theoriessuggest propositions that are tested experimentally and if they are confirmedthen the theory gains strength, otherwise the theory will be revised orabandoned. |
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Law |
•consistentlyobserved relationship between two or more classes of empirical events which isamenable to public observation and verification. |
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Two Classes of scientific laws |
1. Correlational laws 2. Causal Laws |
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Correlational laws |
–howclasses of events vary together.
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Causal laws |
howevents are causally related |
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Major goal of science |
Discover the cause of natural phenomena |
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Assumption of determinism |
what is being studied can be understood in terms of causal laws. |
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Traditional View |
–Empiricalobservations –Theoryformulation, testing, and revision –Predictionand control –Searchfor lawful relationships –Assumptionof determinism |
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Karl Popper |
–Ascientific theory must be refutable – principle of falsifiability
–Theoriesmust make risky predictions – predictions that run a risk of being incorrect |
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Postdiction |
–explainingphenomena after they have already occurred |
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•ThomasKuhn |
–Correspondencetheory of truth
–Paradigmschange as observations cannot be explained by the current paradigm –Researchersbecome emotionally involved with their paradigm and it becomes very difficultto give up. |
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Correspondence theory of truth
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Thenotion that the goal, when evaluating scientific laws or theories, is todetermine whether or not they correspond to an external, mind-independentworld.
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anomalies
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•persistentobservations that a currently accepted paradigm cannot explain
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Scienceprogresses......
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–asscientists are forced to change their belief systems, which are very difficultto change.
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–Stagesof scientific development
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•Preparadigmaticstage •Paradigmaticstage •Revolutionarystage |
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•Preparadigmaticstage |
–Manyrival schools of explanation with random fact gathering. Eventually one school succeeds and becomes aparadigm and science continues.
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•Paradigmaticstage
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Scienceoccurs until a new paradigm displaces the old one
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•Revolutionarystage
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–Anew paradigm displaces another one.
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Popper stated that scientific problem solving is a creative activity
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unlike thepuzzle solving that Kuhn describes it as.
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–Popper’s analysis stresses logic and creativity
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while Kuhn’s analysis of sciences stresses convention and subjective factors.
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Popperaccepted the correspondence theory of truth
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–whileKuhn rejected this theory and instead believed that scientists create the“reality” they explore.
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•Determinism
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–Allbehavior has causal explanations.–
Biologicaldeterminism • –Environmentaldeterminism •.–Socioculturaldeterminism • |
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Biological determinism
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emphasizes importance of physiological conditions and/or genetic predispositions in explanation of behavior.
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Environmental determinism
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emphasizes importance of environmental stimuli as determinants of behavior
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Sociocultural determinism
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emphasizes cultural or societal rules, regulations, customs, and beliefs that govern human behavior
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Physicaldeterminism
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•genes,environmental stimuli, and cultural customs are used to explain human behavior
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Psychicaldeterminism
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mentalcauses, conscious or unconscious, of behavior
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Heisenberg’sprinciple applied to psychology
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•statesthat we can never learn at least some causes of behavior because in attemptingto observe them we change them.
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•Nondeterminism |
Someresearchers reject science as a way of studying humans
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•Determinismand responsibility
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–Freewill leads to personal responsibility for behavior.
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–Harddeterminism
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•Causesfunction in an automatic, mechanistic manner, thus the notion of personalresponsibility is meaningless.
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–Softdeterminism
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•Cognitiveprocesses intervene between experience and production of behavior. Human behavior is result of thoughtfuldeliberation of options available; thus, a person is responsible for actions.
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•Materialists
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–Matteris only reality, thus everything must be explained in terms of matter
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•Idealists
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–Attemptto explain everything in terms of consciousness
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•Monists
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Believein only one view: either materialist or idealist
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•Dualist
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–Believethat there are both physical events (materialism) and mental events (idealism).The question is, how are they related?
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Types of dualism |
–Interactionism
–Emergentism –Epiphenomenalism –Psychophysicalparallelism –Double aspectism –Occasionalism |
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–Emergentism
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•Mental states emerge from brain states.
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–Epiphenomenalism –
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•Mental processes are byproducts of brain processes.
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Psychophysical parallelism
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•Environmental events cause both mental events and behavior simultaneously, which are independent of each other.
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–Interactionism
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•The mind and body interact.
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–Doubleaspectism
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•Humanscannot be divided into mind and body; they are a unity of experience. Mind and body are aspects of the same person.
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–Occasionalism |
•Thissuggests that when a desire occurs in the mind, God causes the body to act;when events happen to the body, God causes the corresponding mental experience. |
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•Nativism
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–Emphasizes role of inheritance
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Empiricism (nurture)
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–Emphasizes role of experienc
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•Mechanism .
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–Behavior of all organisms can be explained as machines in terms of parts and laws
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•Vitalism –
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Living things contain a force that does not exist in inanimate objects.
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•Rationalism
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–Emphasizes logical, systematic, and intelligent thought processes in explanations of behavior
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•Irrationalism
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–Emphasizes unconscious determinants of behavior which cannot be pondered rationally
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•Ifdifference is quantitative(one of degree), •
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studying animals can contribute to understanding human behavior
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If difference is qualitative,
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studying animals can contribute nothing important to understanding human behavior
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•Epistemology
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–Study of the nature of knowledge
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•Radical empiricism
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All knowledge comes from sensory experience.
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Rationalism
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Agreesthat sensory information is important, but that the mind then activelytransforms the information in some way before knowledge is attained.
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•Nativists
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–Proposethat some ideas are a natural part of the mind (Examples: Plato and Descartes)
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Naïverealism
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•positsthat our subjective experience is exactly what is present in the physicalworld.
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Reification
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•Afallacy in which we tend to believe that because something has a name, it alsohas an independent existence
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•Universalism
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–The goal is to describe general laws and principles that govern the world and our perception of it. •Universal truths are to be discovered.
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•Relativism –
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Universal truths either do not exist, or if they do, they cannot be known.
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