Study Guide 5 A&p

Consists of two kidneys, two Ureters,the urinary bladder and the urethra

Kidney

Urethra and Ureters

Bladder

Waste and Excesses eliminated

Regulating blood volume and pressure•Regulate osmolarity

Blood pressure control & electrolyte balance

Erythrocyte synthesis

Regulate PCo2 & Acid-Base Balance

Synthesis of Vitamin D

Detoxify drugs & free radicals

Gluconeogenesis

Filteration

1.2 million nephrons per kidney

2 parts of a nephron

-corpuscle-filters blood plasma

-renal tubule-converts filtration to urine

1) Glomerular Filtration

2) Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion

3) Water Conservation

Sympathetic innervation from abdominal aortic plexus.

Parasympathetic innervation from vagus nerve.

800ml

Stretch receptors detect filing of bladder, sends afferent signals to the spinal cord

Signals return to bladder from spinal cord segments S2 & S3 via parasympathetic fibers in pelvic nerve

Efferent signals excite detrusor muscle

Efferent signals relax the internal urethral sphincter. Urine is involuntarily voided if not stopped by the brain

For voluntary control, micturition center in pons receive signals from stretch receptors

If able to urinate, pons returns signal to spinal interneurons that excite the detrusor muscle and relax internal urethral sphincter. Urine is voided

If unable to urinate, pons stimulates spinal interneurons that keep external urethral sphincter contracted. Urine is not voided, and stays in the bladder

After step 7, if able to urinate, signals from pons to cease and external urethral sphincter relaxes. Urine is voided

Usually about 95% water and 5% solutes

pH 6.0 (acid)

osmolarity

(hydrated person) = 50mOsm/L

(dehydrated person) = 1200mOsm/L

usually clear, can range from colorless to dark amber depending on concentration

density

(hydrated person) = 1.001

(dehydrated person) = 1.028

Urinary bladder infection

Infection of the Renal Pelvis

Infection of the Renal cortex and Nephrons

Glucose

Proteins

Cortical (85%)

Juxtamedullary (15%)

Renal arteries arise directly from aorta and veins flow into the vena cava

Each breaks into smaller/finer branches to supply individual nephrons

leads to the glomerulus in the glomular capsule

leaves the glomerulus to connect with the peritubular capillaries

Creates plasmalike filtrate of the blood

Removes useful solutes from the filtrate, returns them to the blood

Removes additional wastes from the blood, adds them to the filtrate

Removes water from the urine and returns it to blood: concentration wastes

the nephron adjusts its own blood flow and Glomerular Filtration Rate to maintain stable filtration rates

reduce Glomerular Filtration Rate and renal output to redirect blood flow to muscles the heart or brain during fight/flight situations, exercise, and trauma

activated by a drop in blood pressure can have body retain for fluid and electrolytes to artificially raise blood pressure

Urea, uric acid, bile acids, ammonia, catecholamines, and creatinine

morphine, penicillin, aspirin

hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ion

Increases urine levels and lowers blood pressure

18 cms (about 8 inches)

3-4 cms (about 2 inches)

Appearance

Odor

Specific Gravity

Osmolarity

pH

Chemical Composition

Small amount of urine

Lots of urine

No urine

Depending on what a patient has, a different amount of water and concentration is needed.

You should not over treat or delay treatment. Doing that can cause them to possibly cascade into something worse.

Don't give them too much water or too little water. If someone has edema, then too much water could cause the problem to get worse.

intake = output

absorbed electrolytes = to those lost from body, chiefly through urine

body rids itself of acid at the same rate that balances its metabolic production

Intake is regulated by thirst

Output is greatly varied with physical activity and environmental conditions

Gain/lose 2500 ml of water a day

Electrolytes are chemically reactive and participate in metabolism

Determine electrical potentials across membranes

Strongly influence osmolarity of the body fluids and the body's water content/distribution

Function - membrane potentials, protein synthesis, thermogenesis

Regulation - sodium/potassium pump/channels, aldosterone

Imbalances - Hyperkalemia, excitable cells that are easily depolarized.

Hypokalemia, depressed cells that are difficult to excite

Function - membrane potentials, protein synthesis, thermogenesis

Regulation - sodium/potassium pump/channels, aldosterone

Imbalance - Hyponatremia leads to hypotonic hydration

Hypernatremia leads to water retention/edema and hypertension

Function - muscle contraction, second messenger for hormones and neurotransmitter, blood clotting, bone structure/support

Regulation - parathyroid, calcitriol, calcitonin

Imbalances - Hypercalcemia results in muscle weakness, depressed reflexes and cardiac arrhythmia by inhibiting depolarization

Hypocalcemia leads to hyper excitable cell membranes and muscle tetany

Function- pH balance, stomach acid formation forprotein digestion, CO₂ exchange

Regulation- sodium homeostasis, chloride ions passivelyfollow sodium

Imbalances- hyperchloremia and hypochloremia result in disturbances of the acid-basebalance

Function- protein synthesis, ATP, GTP, cAMP, creatine and nucleic acids formation

Regulation- parathyroid, urine pH

Imbalances- –not critical as other electrolytes–Body can tolerate significant changes of 3x the normal levels with no immediate physiological effect

Hypotension (low blood pressure)

Hyponatremia (low sodium)

Hyperkalemia (high potassium)

*potassium levels shut down aldosterone*

Correction for hypercalcemia (too much calcium in blood)

Deposit calcium in bone

Reduce osteoclast activity

Correction for hypocalcemia (too little calcium in blood)

Breaks down bone to get calcium

Increase osteoclast activity

Removes 3 times the amount of CO2 from the blood compared to the chemical buffering system

Kidneys neutralize more acids or bases than the chemical buffering systems or the respiratory system combined

expels pure hydrogen, other systems cannot

Acidosis

Alkalosis

Fatal

Tongue> Esophagus> Stomach> Duodenum> Jejunum> Ileum> Cecum> Large Intestines> Anal Canal> Anus

Mastication- Breaks food down into smaller pieces

Deglutition (swallowing)- 3 stages

1) Oral stage (voluntary)

2) Pharyngeal/ 3) Esophageal (involuntary): stimulates muscle contractions of pharyngeal

Peristalsis: wavelike motion to push bolus esophagus and intestinal wall (food down)

Segmentation: back and forth movement of food in intestinal walls

Produces chemical change in food

Made from hydrolysis (water and a compound) to make simpler compound

Enzymes are catalysts, specialized proteins

The first part of chemical digestion.

Enzyme helps breakdown complex carbohydrates

Enzyme helps breakdown fats

Immune response

Lubricates food

Produces physical change in food

Mastication, breaking food down into smaller pieces

hold and direct food in oral cavity

lateral boundaries of the oral cavity, containing mucus secreting glands, hold and direct food

olfactory nerves penetrate for smell

forms partition between the mouth and the nasopharynx

Important for mastication and deglutition and taste

organs of mastication

Important for digestion/absorption

Made of Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum

Intestinal lining has plicae with villi. This increases the surface area which increases absorption rate.

No digestion occurs in the large intestines

Primarily absorption of water and nutrients.

Helps eliminate wastes from digestion such as water, bile, mucus, and feces

Liver can detoxify substances to make them non toxic

Liver can secret bile

Important in metabolizing proteins, fats, and carbohydrates

Storage of substances such as iron and some vitamins

Stores bile

Contains concentration of bile from five fold to ten fold

Ejects concentrated bile into duodenum

Reservoir for food until more digestion can occur

secretes gastric juice to aid in digestion

breaks food into small particles

helps protect body from pathogenic bacteria swallowed with food

Exocrine- pancreatic duct which empties into the duodenum

Endocrine- pass secretion into the stomach

Acinar secrets digestive enzymes for complex carbohydrates, beta cells secrete insulin, and alpha cells produce glucagon

Protein partially digested by salivary glands

Starch & Fats are less than protein

Absorption- aspirin and some lipids soluble drugs (alcohol in small intestines)

Polysaccharides- starches, glycogen

Disaccharides- sucrose, lactose, and maltose require the enzymes

Monosaccharides- simplest form of carbohydrates: glucose, fructose, galactose

Pepsin- produced by chief cells in stomach

Trypsin & chymotrypsin- produced in pancreas

Heat production occurs through metabolic rate or vasoconstriction, by friction

Hypothalamus monitors blood temperature and receives signals from skin about the environment. Has mechanisms in place to maintain normal body temperature.

Shivering thermogenesis

Nonshivering thermogenesis

Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation

Sweating

Behavioral thermoregulation

Heat cramps = electrolyte loss

Heat exhaustion = electrolyte and water loss

Heat Stroke = fatal, radiation and conduction. Body gains heat but cannot evaporate heat

Hypothermia = fatal and life threatening, positive feedback loops

Diffusion

Sodium-potassium pump

Osmosis

Sodium co-transport system (carrier for glucose)

9.0L in = .1L out

2L from intake

1L from salivary

2L from stomach acids

1.2L from pancreas

0.7L from liver

2.0L from small intestines

92% of water is absorbed in the small intestines

6-7% of water absorption

-.1L from feces

Mouth=> Upper Esophageal Sphincter=> Esophagus=> Lower Esophageal Sphincter=> Stomach=> Pyloric Sphincter=> Duodenum (pancreatic and bile duct)=> Jejunum=> Ileum=> Iliocecal Junction=> Iliocecal Valve=> Cecum=> Ascending Colon=> Hepatic Flexure=> Transverse Colon=> Splenic Flexure=> Descending Colon=> Sigmoid Colon=> Rectum=> Anal Canal

- Glucose

- 2 ADP

- 2 Pi

- 2 NAD+

- 2 pyruvate

- 2 NADH

- 2 H+

- 2 pyruvic acid

- 2 NADH

- 2 lactic acid

- 2 NAD+

- 2 pyruvic acids

- 8 NAD+

- 2 FAD

- 2 ADP

- 8 H2O

- 2 Pi

- 6 CO2

- 8 NADH

- 2 FAD(H2)

- 2 ATP

- 2 H2O

- 10 NADH

- 2 FAD(H2)

- 6 O2

- 32-34 ATP

- 12 H2O

Reorganizes glucose and splits it in two in preparation for further oxidation by the mitochondria

Makes ATP

Regenerates NAD+ so glycolysis can continue to function (and generate ATP) in the absence of oxygen

Remove electrons from pyruvic acids and transfers them to coenzymes NAD+ and FAD

Produces some ATP

Finishing oxidation and produce most of the ATP of cellular respiration

Male reproductive system consists of organswhose functions are to produce, transfer, and introduce mature sperm into thefemale reproductive tract where fertilization can occur

It produces eggs, or female gametes, whicheach may unite with a male gamete to form the first cell of an offspring

It also can provide nutrition and protectionto the offspring for up to several years after conception

Penis, Scrotum, Testis, etc

Ovaries, Uterine tube, Uterus, Vagina

- Pubic and axillary hair & associated scent glands

- Pitch of voice

Male: Facial hair, coarse, visible hair on torso and limbs

Female: Distribution of body fat, breast enlargement, hairless appearance of skin, flare of pelvis and feminine physique

Develops male external genitalia from 10 to 12 weeks

Develops female external genitalia from 10 to 12 weeks